Career and family aspirations of female athletic trainers employed in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I setting

Work-Family Conflict and Family Role Performance Among Collegiate Athletic Trainers

CONTEXT

Work-life balance continues to be a focal point of athletic training research, particularly due to the job challenges and demands of health care providers. Despite a large body of literature, much is still unexplored, especially in the area of family role performance (FRP).

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationships between work-family conflict (WFC), FRP, and various demographic variables among athletic trainers employed in the collegiate setting.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional online survey.

SETTING

Collegiate setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 586 collegiate athletic trainers (females = 374, males = 210, sex variant or nonconforming = 1, preferred not to answer = 1).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Data were collected through an online survey (Qualtrics) in which participants responded to demographic questions and previously validated WFC and FRP scales. Demographic data were reported and analyzed for descriptive information and frequencies. Mann-Whitney U tests were performed to identify differences among groups.

RESULTS

Participants' mean scores were 28.19 ± 6.01 and 45.86 ± 11.55 for the FRP and WFC scales, respectively. Mann-Whitney U tests revealed differences between men and women for WFC scores (U = 344 667, P = .021). The FRP score was moderately negatively correlated with the WFC total score (rs[584] = -0.497, P < .001) and predicted the WFC score (b = 72.02, t582 = -13.30, P = .001). The Mann-Whitney U test demonstrated that married athletic trainers (47.20 ± 11.92) had higher WFC scores than those who were not married (43.48 ± 11.78; U = 19847.00, P = .003). Mann-Whitney U analysis (U = 32 096.00, P = .001) also revealed a difference between collegiate athletic trainers with children (48.16 ± 12.44) and those without children (44.68 ± 10.90).

CONCLUSIONS

Collegiate athletic trainers experienced more WFC with marriage and having children. We propose that the time required to raise a family and build relationships may cause WFC due to time incongruencies. Athletic trainers want to be able to spend time with their families; however, when such time is highly limited, then WFC increases.

Who do Australian women seek social support from during the reproductive decision-making process?

Limited evidence exists about women's experiences of social support for reproductive decision-making, particularly who women seek social support from during decision-making. Using a concurrent mixed methods approach, this research explored who women aged 25-35 years living in Victoria, Australia, seek social support from during reproductive decision-making. Women seek social support for reproductive decision-making from multiple sources. However, through exploring women's support seeking for reproductive decision-making, rather than once a reproductive decision had been made, the study highlights the nuanced and contextual nature of support seeking for reproductive decision-making demonstrating support seeking is influenced by: type of reproductive decision; women's relationships with members of their social network; previous experiences of support seeking for reproductive decisions; expectations of the support they would receive; homophily; and temporality. This research provides important insight into who women seek support from for reproductive decision-making. Understanding this will help inform future social and public health interventions.

Work and Life in the Sport Industry: A Review of Work-Life Interface Experiences Among Athletic Employees

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature on work-life interfaces in the sport industry, focusing on athletic trainers, coaches, athletes, and other sport personnel.

DATA SOURCES

Studies were identified using SPORTDiscus, PsychINFO, and Google Scholar. Search terms included work-family balance, work-life balance, work-family conflict, work-life conflict, work-family enrichment, and work-life enrichment. These search terms were used in different combinations and configurations in the search process.

STUDY SELECTION

Included studies were peer-reviewed journal articles, with primary data collection, and published in English. In the articles, researchers also examined some aspect of the work-family interface in relation to the sport industry.

DATA EXTRACTION

The initial searches returned 110 articles. Of these, 21 articles were removed for a lack of focus on the sport industry, for being a duplicate, or for focusing outside the work-life interface in sport. A total of 89 articles remained for a full analysis. An additional 20 articles were then removed because the authors either did not collect primary data or focused outside our study purpose. Therefore, 69 articles were included in the review.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The theoretical framework, study population, population region, methods, article focus, and findings from the articles were recorded. Articles were then grouped based on the study population focus (eg, athletic trainer, coach, or other).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggested that investigators' primary interests were athletic trainers and coaches, primarily with respect to work-life balance and work-life conflict. Less attention was paid to international participants, athletes, and topics related to work-life enrichment. The field will continue to progress as more populations and perspectives are studied. Furthermore, an additional emphasis on positive organizational behaviors, such as work-life enrichment and life-work enrichment, will move the literature forward and answer useful questions with both theoretical and practical outcomes.

National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Facilitating Work-Life Balance in Athletic Training Practice Settings

OBJECTIVE: 

To illustrate the concept of work-life balance and those factors that influence it and to provide recommendations to facilitate work-life balance in athletic training practice settings. To present the athletic trainer with information regarding work-life balance, including those factors that negatively and positively affect it within the profession.

BACKGROUND: 

Concerns for work-life balance have been growing within the health care sector, especially in athletic training, as it is continuously linked to professional commitment, burnout, job satisfaction, and career longevity. The term work-life balance reflects those practices used to facilitate the successful fulfillment of the responsibilities associated with all roles one may assume, including those of a parent, spouse, partner, friend, and employee. A host of organizational and individual factors (eg, hours worked, travel demands, flexibility of work schedules, relationship status, family values) negatively influence the fulfillment of work-life balance for the athletic trainer, but practical strategies are available to help improve work-life balance, regardless of the practice setting.

RECOMMENDATIONS: 

This position statement is charged with distributing information on work-life balance for athletic trainers working in a variety of employment settings. Recommendations include a blend of organizational and personal strategies designed to promote work-life balance. Establishing work-life balance requires organizations to have formal policies that are supported at the departmental and personal level, in addition to informal policies that reflect the organizational climate of the workplace. Individuals are also encouraged to consider their needs and responsibilities in order to determine which personal strategies will aid them in attaining work-life balance.

An Examination of Relationships Among Resiliency, Hardiness, Affectivity, and Work-Life Balance in Collegiate Athletic Trainers

CONTEXT:

A multilevel model has been used to describe the complex nature of work-life balance in sport organizations. Organizational aspects such as work scheduling, hours worked, job demands, and decreased perceived value have been reported as factors that can positively or negatively affect work-life balance. However, the individual factors that contribute to this balance have not been well studied.

OBJECTIVE:

To better understand the individual factors (emotional stability and coping) that may facilitate or inhibit work-life balance among athletic trainers (ATs).

DESIGN:

Cross-sectional online survey.

SETTING:

National Collegiate Athletic Association athletic training setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS:

A total of 423 (193 men, 230 women) ATs employed in the National Collegiate Athletic Association setting.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S):

Data were collected via a Web-based survey instrument consisting of demographic and Likert-scale questions related to resiliency, hardiness, affectivity, work-family conflict (WFC), and work-family enrichment (WFE). Likert responses were summed and demographic information was analyzed for frequency and distribution. Independent t tests, analysis of variance, and Spearman correlations were calculated to evaluate the relationships among variables.

RESULTS:

Participants exhibited moderate hardiness scores of 3.9 ± 4.0 (range, -9 to 15). Positive affectivity was weakly negatively correlated with WFC ( r = -0.212, P < .001) and moderately positively correlated with WFE ( r = 0.448, P < .001). Resiliency was weakly negatively correlated with WFC ( r = -0.25, P < .001) and weakly positively correlated with WFE ( r = 0.228, P < .001). Additionally, individuals with less than 10 years of experience had lower positive affectivity scores than those with more than 10 years of experience. Men scored higher than women only in resiliency.

CONCLUSIONS:

Collegiate ATs demonstrated moderate levels of coping behaviors that allow them to manage their personal and professional lives. Athletic trainers with more years of experience displayed a more positive affect.

The Organizational Climate in Collegiate Athletics: An Athletic Trainer's Perspective

CONTEXT

  An organizational climate is largely based on an employee's perceptions of the working conditions in which he or she engages regularly. A multifaceted concept, the organizational climate is often formed by perceptions of employee welfare, rewards, and support. Achieving work-life balance is also a part of the climate.

OBJECTIVE

  To learn collegiate athletic trainers' perceptions of organizational climate and specifically how it may pertain to their work-life balance.

DESIGN

  Phenomenologic study.

SETTING

  Collegiate practice setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

  Thirty athletic trainers working in the collegiate athletics setting took part in 1-on-1 phone interviews. The participants were 30.5 (interquartile range [IQR] = 7.75) years old and had been certified for 7 (IQR = 5) years and at their current position for 4 (IQR = 3) years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

  Participants completed a phone interview that followed a semistructured framework. All transcribed interviews were analyzed using a phenomenologic approach. Researcher triangulation, expert review, and data saturation were used to establish credibility.

RESULTS

  Athletic trainers working in the collegiate athletics setting who had positive perceptions of their work-life balance described their organizational climate as family friendly. Our participants' supervisors allowed for autonomy related to work scheduling, which provided opportunities for work-life balance. These athletic trainers believed that they worked in a climate that was collegial, which was helpful for work-life balance. In addition, the importance of placing family first was part of the climate.

CONCLUSIONS

  The perceptions of our participants revealed a climate of family friendliness, supervisor support, and collegiality among staff members, which facilitated the positive climate for work-life balance. The mindset embraced the importance of family and recognized that work did not always have to supersede personal priorities.

Organizational Infrastructure in the Collegiate Athletic Training Setting, Part III: Benefits of and Barriers in the Medical and Academic Models

CONTEXT

 Academic and medical models are emerging as alternatives to the athletics model, which is the more predominant model in the collegiate athletic training setting. Little is known about athletic trainers' (ATs') perceptions of these models.

OBJECTIVE

 To investigate the perceived benefits of and barriers in the medical and academic models.

DESIGN

 Qualitative study.

SETTING

 National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions I, II, and III.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

 A total of 16 full-time ATs (10 men, 6 women; age = 32 ± 6 years, experience = 10 ± 6 years) working in the medical (n = 8) or academic (n = 8) models.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

 We conducted semistructured telephone interviews and evaluated the qualitative data using a general inductive approach. Multiple-analyst triangulation and peer review were completed to satisfy data credibility.

RESULTS

 In the medical model, role congruency and work-life balance emerged as benefits, whereas role conflict, specifically intersender conflict with coaches, was a barrier. In the academic model, role congruency emerged as a benefit, and barriers were role strain and work-life conflict. Subscales of role strain included role conflict and role ambiguity for new employees. Role conflict stemmed from intersender conflict with coaches and athletics administrative personnel and interrole conflict with fulfilling multiple overlapping roles (academic, clinical, administrative).

CONCLUSIONS

 The infrastructure in which ATs provide medical care needs to be evaluated. We found that the medical model can support better alignment for both patient care and the wellbeing of ATs. Whereas the academic model has perceived benefits, role incongruence exists, mostly because of the role complexity associated with balancing teaching, patient-care, and administrative duties.

Organizational Infrastructure in the Collegiate Athletic Training Setting, Part I: Quality-of-Life Comparisons and Commonalities Among the Models

CONTEXT

 Some anecdotal evidence has suggested that organizational infrastructure may affect the quality of life of athletic trainers (ATs).

OBJECTIVE

 To compare ATs' perspectives on work-life balance, role strain, job satisfaction, and retention in collegiate practice settings within the various models.

DESIGN

 Cross-sectional and qualitative study.

SETTING

 National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions I, II, and III.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

 Fifty-nine ATs from 3 models (athletics = 25, medical = 20, academic = 14) completed phase I. A total of 24 ATs (15 men, 9 women), 8 from each model, also completed phase II.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

 Participants completed a Web-based survey for phase I and were interviewed via telephone for phase II. Quantitative data were analyzed using statistical software. Likert-scale answers (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) to the survey questions were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney U, and Cohen f tests. Qualitative data were evaluated using a general inductive approach. Multiple-analyst triangulation and peer review were conducted to satisfy data credibility.

RESULTS

 Commonalities were communication, social support, and time management and effective work-life balance strategies. Quantitative data revealed that ATs employed in the athletics model worked more hours (69.6 ± 11.8 hours) than those employed in the medical (57.6 ± 10.2 hours; P = .001) or academic (59.5 ± 9.5 hours; P = .02) model, were less satisfied with their pay (2.68 ± 1.1; χ² = 7.757, P = .02; f = 0.394), believed that they had less support from their administrators (3.12 ± 1.1; χ² = 9.512, P = .009; f = 0.443), and had fewer plans to remain in their current positions (3.20 ± 1.2; χ² = 7.134, P = .03; f = 0.374). Athletic trainers employed in the academic model believed that they had less support from coworkers (3.71 ± 0.90; χ² = 6.825, P = .03; f = 0.365) and immediate supervisors (3.43 ± 0.90; χ² = 6.006, P = .050; f = 0.340). No differences in role conflict were found among the models.

CONCLUSIONS

 Organizational infrastructure may play a role in mediating various sources of conflict, but regardless of facilitators, ATs need to be effective communicators, have support networks in place, and possess time-management skills.

Navigating Motherhood and the Role of the Head Athletic Trainer in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

Motherhood has been identified as a barrier to the head athletic trainer (AT) position. Role models have been cited as a possible facilitator for increasing the number of women who pursue and maintain this role in the collegiate setting.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the experiences of female ATs balancing motherhood and head AT positions in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics settings.

DESIGN

Qualitative study.

SETTING

National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions II and III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 22 female head ATs (average age = 40 ± 8 years) who were married with children completed our study. Our participants had been certified for 15.5 ± 7.5 years and in their current positions as head ATs for 9 ± 8 years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We conducted online interviews with all participants. Participants journaled their reflections on a series of open-ended questions pertaining to their experiences as head ATs. Data were analyzed following a general inductive approach. Credibility was confirmed through peer review and researcher triangulation.

RESULTS

We identified 3 major contributors to work-life conflict. Two speak to organizational influences on conflict: work demands and time of year. The role of motherhood, which was more of a personal contributor, also precipitated conflict for our ATs. Four themes emerged as work-life balance facilitators: planning, attitude and perspective, support networks, and workplace integration. Support was defined at both the personal and professional levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In terms of the organization, our participants juggled long work hours, travel, and administrative tasks. Individually and socioculturally, they overcame their guilt and their need to be present and an active part of the parenting process. These mothers demonstrated the ability to cope with their demanding roles as both moms and head ATs.

Personality Traits and Burnout Among Athletic Trainers Employed in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

Burnout, a psychological state of mental weariness that occurs when work stresses become overwhelming, has frequently been documented in athletic trainers and has been hypothesized to affect professional retention. Experiences of burnout may be influenced by individual-level factors such as gender or personality, though few researchers have investigated such interactions in athletic trainers.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between personalities, as measured by the Big Five Personality Inventory, and burnout.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Online Web-based survey.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 189 athletic trainers working in the collegiate setting, 65 men (34.4%) and 124 women (65.6%), with an average of 5 ± 3 years certified and 2.5 ± 2 years working in their current position.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Data were collected using a Web-based survey instrument consisting of 3 sections: (1) demographics, (2) burnout survey, and (3) Big Five Personality Inventory. Likert responses for the burnout score were summed. Independent t tests, Pearson correlations, and multiple regressions were calculated to evaluate the relationships between demographics and burnout and between burnout and personality.

RESULTS

This group of athletic trainers experienced moderate burnout, regardless of gender. A weak negative correlation was present between burnout score and both agreeableness and extraversion. A weak positive correlation existed between burnout and neuroticism. These variables did not predict burnout scores; only neuroticism added significantly to the weak predictive value. Personality explained only 17.3% of the variability in burnout scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study confirms the findings of previous researchers highlighting moderate burnout in athletic trainers employed in the collegiate setting. We did not find that personality significantly predicted burnout, though it did account for a small amount of the variance in burnout scores. Thus, organizational-level factors may play a greater role in determining burnout in athletic trainers than individual-level factors such as personality.

A Longitudinal Examination of Work-Life Balance in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

The literature regarding work-life balance (WLB) is plentiful, particularly in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate setting due to its demanding nature as defined by work hours and travel. Despite the comprehensive understanding of factors contributing to WLB for athletic trainers (ATs) in this setting, the effect of time of year has yet to be investigated.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the influence sport season timing (ie, preseason, in-season, off-season) can have on perceptions and experiences of WLB for ATs.

DESIGN

Qualitative, case-study design.

SETTING

Division I collegiate practice setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Six ATs employed in the Division I college setting (3 women, 3 men) volunteered and completed our study over 1 year. The average age of participants was 31.0 ± 3 years, and they had 9.0 ± 3 years of experience.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We conducted semistructured one-on-one phone interviews with each participant at 4 points during the year (August, November, February, June). All interviews were transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed inductively, and we used peer review, multiple-analyst triangulation, and member checks for credibility.

RESULTS

Time of year (eg, competitive in-season), organizational demands (eg, hours and travel), and life stage (eg, roles assumed) were factors that influenced WLB for ATs in the collegiate setting. Having a positive and adaptable mind-set; having coworker, supervisor, and personal support; and engaging in personal or family time were factors that counterbalanced the inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that a career as an AT in the collegiate setting can create WLB concerns; these concerns, however, seem to peak during the competitive in-season for the AT's primary coverage team. Additionally, conflict that arises for ATs seems to be stimulated by time, as work roles are often less accommodating due to the athletic atmosphere.

Exploring Summer Medical Care Within the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Setting: A Perspective From the Athletic Trainer

CONTEXT

Over the last few decades, the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) has made changes related to the increase in sanctioned team activities during summer athletics. These changes may affect how athletic training services are provided.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the methods by which athletic training departments of NCAA institutions manage expectations regarding athletic training services during the summer.

DESIGN

Mixed-methods qualitative and quantitative study.

SETTING

The NCAA Division I.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-two athletic trainers (13 men, 9 women) participated. All were employed full time within the NCAA Division I setting. Participants were 35 ± 8 years of age (range, 26-52 years), with 12 ± 7 years (range, 3-29 years) of athletic training experience.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

All participants completed a series of questions online that consisted of closed- (demographic and Likert-scale 5-point) and open-ended items that addressed the research questions. Descriptive statistics, frequency distributions, and phenomenologic analyses were completed with the data. Peer review and multiple-analyst triangulation established credibility.

RESULTS

Summer athletic training services included 3 primary mechanisms: individual medical care, shared medical care, or a combination of the 2. Participants reported working 40 ± 10 hours during the summer. Likert-item analysis showed that participants were moderately satisfied with their summer medical care structure (3.3 ± 1.0) and with the flexibility of summer schedules (3.0 ± 1.2). Yet the qualitative analysis revealed that perceptions of summer medical care were more positive for shared-care participants than for individual- or combination-care participants. The perceived effect on the athletic trainer included increased workload and expectations and a negative influence on work-life balance, particularly in terms of decreased schedule flexibility and opportunities for rejuvenation. For many, the summer season mimicked the hours, workload, and expectations of the nontraditional season.

CONCLUSIONS

The NCAA rule changes and medical care expectations affected the summer workload of athletic trainers, but job sharing seemed to help them manage conflict associated with providing summer athletic training services.