Experiences of Work-Life Conflict for the Athletic Trainer Employed Outside the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Clinical Setting

Training satisfaction relative to turnover intention: the mediating role of employee loyalty

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to focus on Turnover intention (TI) which is gaining significance in the Jordanian government sector as well as in many other international institutions. Organizations tend to seek valuable benefits from the human resource capital they have to achieve their competitive advantages. However, TI becomes a global issue as well as in Jordanian public context. The research framework of this study is based on the satisfaction and social psychological literature.

Design/methodology/approach

By applying the convenience sampling method, data were collected through an online questionnaire; 354 respondents from the governmental sector participated in this study. Data were analyzed using the statistical software Smart PLS.

Findings

Results revealed that mind wandering (MW) has a negative impact on training satisfaction (TS) while trainer efficacy (TE) has a positive impact on TS. Meanwhile, work–life conflict (WLC) was not significantly related to TS. TS has a negative impact on TI and a positive impact on employee loyalty (EL). However, EL has a negative impact on TI, and, at the same time, it mediates the relationship between TS and TI. Moreover, the study demonstrates sequential mediation for TI.

Originality/value

The research adds to the body of knowledge by testing a new framework. Moreover, it introduces sequential mediation for TI.

Parental Perspectives of Work-Family Conflict and Guilt in Collegiate Athletic Trainers: A Descriptive Qualitative Design

CONTEXT

Work-family guilt has been reported among athletic trainers (ATs) working in the intercollegiate setting; however, it has yet to be fully explored from a descriptive, in-depth perspective.

OBJECTIVE

To better understand the experiences of work-family conflict and guilt of intercollegiate ATs who are parents.

DESIGN

Descriptive qualitative study.

SETTING

Intercollegiate athletics.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Twelve collegiate ATs (females = 6, males = 6) participated in the study. All 12 were married (12 ± 7 years) with an average 2 ± 1 children (range = 1-4). The ATs reported working 51 ± 9 hours per week and spending 11 ± 7 hours per week on household duties or chores.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One-on-one interviews were conducted with all participants. An inductive descriptive coding process was used to analyze the data after saturation was met. Peer review and researcher triangulation were completed.

RESULTS

Conflict and guilt were discussed as unavoidable given the equally demanding roles of AT and parent. The resulting guilt was bidirectional, as each role is equally important to the AT. The management theme was specifically defined by 3 subthemes: creating a separation between work and parenting roles, the benefits of having a supportive workplace, and the importance of having coworkers and supervisors with shared life experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

The ATs experienced work-family conflict and feelings of guilt from their parental responsibilities. The guilt described by the ATs was bidirectional, as they placed high value on both their parenting and athletic training roles. Guilt was balanced and managed by reducing the spillover from the parental role into work or work into time at home. By separating roles and having supportive workplace environments, including coworkers and supervisors who had similar life experiences, ATs felt they were better able to meet work and home demands.

Work and Life in the Sport Industry: A Review of Work-Life Interface Experiences Among Athletic Employees

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature on work-life interfaces in the sport industry, focusing on athletic trainers, coaches, athletes, and other sport personnel.

DATA SOURCES

Studies were identified using SPORTDiscus, PsychINFO, and Google Scholar. Search terms included work-family balance, work-life balance, work-family conflict, work-life conflict, work-family enrichment, and work-life enrichment. These search terms were used in different combinations and configurations in the search process.

STUDY SELECTION

Included studies were peer-reviewed journal articles, with primary data collection, and published in English. In the articles, researchers also examined some aspect of the work-family interface in relation to the sport industry.

DATA EXTRACTION

The initial searches returned 110 articles. Of these, 21 articles were removed for a lack of focus on the sport industry, for being a duplicate, or for focusing outside the work-life interface in sport. A total of 89 articles remained for a full analysis. An additional 20 articles were then removed because the authors either did not collect primary data or focused outside our study purpose. Therefore, 69 articles were included in the review.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The theoretical framework, study population, population region, methods, article focus, and findings from the articles were recorded. Articles were then grouped based on the study population focus (eg, athletic trainer, coach, or other).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggested that investigators' primary interests were athletic trainers and coaches, primarily with respect to work-life balance and work-life conflict. Less attention was paid to international participants, athletes, and topics related to work-life enrichment. The field will continue to progress as more populations and perspectives are studied. Furthermore, an additional emphasis on positive organizational behaviors, such as work-life enrichment and life-work enrichment, will move the literature forward and answer useful questions with both theoretical and practical outcomes.

Perceived Stress as an Indicator of Work–Family Conflict and Burnout Among Secondary School Athletic Trainers

Burnout and work–family conflict (WFC) are stressors faced by secondary school athletic trainers, however, the concept of perceived stress and its relationship to burnout or WFC is not well understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate perceived stress’ relationship with burnout and WFC. Participants reported a WFC score of 40.36 (±15.63), low burnout (40.1 ± 16.28), and moderate stress (15.99 ± 7.02). Perceived stress predicted WFC, but not burnout (b = 1.13, t572 = 14.132, p ≤ .001). One’s level of perceived stress impacts WFC, which indicates higher stress will equal greater work–family conflict.

Work-Family Conflict of Collegiate and Secondary School Athletic Trainers Who Are Parents

CONTEXT

The work-life interface has been a much discussed and researched area within athletic training. The National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement on work-life balance highlighted the profession's interest in this topic. However, gaps in the literature remain and include the roles of time-based conflict and social support.

OBJECTIVE

To compare work-family conflict (WFC) and social support among athletic trainers (ATs) employed in the 2 most common practice settings.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational survey.

SETTING

Collegiate and secondary school settings.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 474 (females = 231, males = 243) ATs who were employed in the collegiate (205, 43.2%) or secondary school (269, 56.8%) setting.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Data were collected through a Web-based survey designed to measure conflict and social support. Likert responses were summed. Demographic information was analyzed for frequency and distribution. Independent t tests and Mann-Whitney U tests were calculated to determine group differences. Linear regression was used to determine if social support predicted WFC.

RESULTS

Social provisions and WFC were negatively correlated, and the social provisions score predicted WFC. No WFC differences (P = .778) were found between collegiate and high school ATs even though collegiate ATs worked more hours (63 ± 11) during their busiest seasons compared with those in the high school setting (54 ± 13, P < .001). Similarly, no difference (P = .969) was present between men and women, although men worked more hours. Our participants scored highest on time-based WFC items.

CONCLUSIONS

Work-family conflict was experienced globally in 2 of the most common athletic training settings and between sexes. This indicates WFC is universally experienced and therefore needs to be addressed, specifically with a focus on time-based conflict. In addition to time-management strategies, ATs need support from coworkers, peers, and family members.

Athletic Trainer Burnout: A Systematic Review of the Literature

OBJECTIVE

To identify the causes, effects, and prevalence of burnout in athletic trainers (ATs) identified in the literature.

DATA SOURCES

EBSCO: SPORTDiscus and OneSearch were accessed, using the search terms athletic trainer AND burnout.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies selected for inclusion were peer reviewed, published in a journal, and written in English and investigated prevalence, causes, effects, or alleviation of AT burnout.

DATA EXTRACTION

The initial search yielded 558 articles. Articles that did not specifically involve ATs were excluded from further inspection. The remaining 83 full-text articles were reviewed. Of these 83 articles, 48 examined prevalence, causes, effects, or alleviation of AT burnout. An evaluation of the bibliographies of those 48 articles revealed 3 additional articles that were not initially identified but met the inclusion criteria. In total, 51 articles were included in data collection.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Articles were categorized based on investigation of prevalence, causes, effects, or alleviation of burnout. Articles were also categorized based on which subset of the athletic training population they observed (ie, athletic training students, certified graduate assistants, high school or collegiate staff members, academic faculty).

CONCLUSIONS

Burnout was observed in all studied subsets of the population (ie, students, graduate assistants, staff, faculty), and multiple causes of burnout were reported. Suggested causes of burnout in ATs included work-life conflict and organizational factors such as poor salaries, long hours, and difficulties dealing with the "politics and bureaucracy" of athletics. Effects of burnout in ATs included physical, emotional, and behavioral concerns (eg, intention to leave the job or profession).

Formal and Informal Work-Life Balance Practices of Athletic Trainers in Collegiate and University Settings

Context

Organizational policies for work-life balance exist, but little is known about athletic trainers' (ATs') awareness of and willingness to use them.

Objective

To explore ATs' formal and informal work-life balance policies in the collegiate and university athletic training setting.

Design

Sequential mixed-methods study.

Setting

Web-based survey.

Patients or Other Participants

We sent 4673 e-mails to National Athletic Trainers' Association ATs (full-time employment for at least 1 year, nonacademic appointment); 1221 participants began our survey (access rate = 26.1%), and 783 completed the survey (64.1% completion rate). Demographics were as follows: men = 375 (48.0%) and women = 404 (51.7%); age = 36 ± 10 years; experience = 13 ± 9 years; years at current place of employment = 8 ± 8 years; and participants with children or minor dependents = 262 (33.5%).

Main Outcome Measure(s)

We created a 17-item instrument from an earlier qualitative study. A panel of experts (n = 3; employer, employee, and researcher) completed a content analysis. Variables of interest were confidence (scale = 1–4) and satisfaction (scale = 1–5) with policies. We used Pearson χ2 analyses to compare the effect of undergoing an orientation and the presence or absence of children on the main outcome measures.

Results

A majority of participants had experienced formal orientation through the human resources department (n = 522, 66.8%), the direct supervisor (n = 240, 30.7%), or a colleague (n = 114, 14.6%). However, many had received no orientation (n = 184, 23.6%). Those who had undergone orientation indicated greater confidence in knowing about (P &lt; .001) and greater satisfaction with (P &lt; .001) formal workplace policies and benefits. Those with children stated that they had greater confidence in knowing about (P &lt; .001) and greater satisfaction with (P = .013) formal workplace policies and benefits. Those who had been oriented felt greater confidence in knowing about (P = .009) but no difference in satisfaction with (P = .060) informal workplace policies and benefits. We did not identify differences between those with and those without children regarding their confidence in knowing about (P = .653) or satisfaction with (P = .150) informal workplace policies and benefits.

Conclusions

Athletic trainers in the collegiate and university setting were not confident in their knowledge of formal or informal work-life balance policies.

Role Strain, Part 2: Perceptions Among Athletic Trainers Employed in the Professional Practice Setting

CONTEXT

  Athletic trainers (ATs) employed in the professional sport setting (ATPSSs) demonstrate moderate to high degrees of role strain. The experiences and perceptions of these ATs provide insight regarding the sources of role strain as well as ways to reduce it.

OBJECTIVE

  To investigate the perceptions of ATPSSs regarding role strain.

DESIGN

  Qualitative study.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

  From a purposeful sampling of 389 ATs employed in the 5 major sport leagues (Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, National Basketball Association, National Football League, and National Hockey League), we identified 34 participants willing to participate in phone interviews. Data Collection and Procedures:  Semistructured phone interviews. Inductive data analysis was based on a grounded theory approach. Credibility was addressed with member checks and a peer debriefing.

RESULTS

  Three first-order emergent themes materialized from the data: (1) sources of role strain, (2) consequences of role strain, and (3) strategies to alleviate role strain in ATPSSs. Participants described the antecedents of role strain as emerging from the competing expectations of the professional athlete, the organization, and the sport league. Consequences of role strain included effects on direct patient care and work-life imbalance. Improving organizational factors such as inadequate staffing and poor communication within the organization were strategies described by participants for decreasing role strain in the professional sports setting.

CONCLUSIONS

  Our participants discussed experiencing role strain, which was facilitated by trying to meet the competing demands placed on them with limited time and often with an inadequate support staff. Participant role strain affected health care and contributed to work-life imbalance. Participants described changing the organizational factors that contributed to role strain as a strategy to alleviate the perceived stress.

The Organizational Climate in Collegiate Athletics: An Athletic Trainer's Perspective

CONTEXT

  An organizational climate is largely based on an employee's perceptions of the working conditions in which he or she engages regularly. A multifaceted concept, the organizational climate is often formed by perceptions of employee welfare, rewards, and support. Achieving work-life balance is also a part of the climate.

OBJECTIVE

  To learn collegiate athletic trainers' perceptions of organizational climate and specifically how it may pertain to their work-life balance.

DESIGN

  Phenomenologic study.

SETTING

  Collegiate practice setting.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

  Thirty athletic trainers working in the collegiate athletics setting took part in 1-on-1 phone interviews. The participants were 30.5 (interquartile range [IQR] = 7.75) years old and had been certified for 7 (IQR = 5) years and at their current position for 4 (IQR = 3) years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

  Participants completed a phone interview that followed a semistructured framework. All transcribed interviews were analyzed using a phenomenologic approach. Researcher triangulation, expert review, and data saturation were used to establish credibility.

RESULTS

  Athletic trainers working in the collegiate athletics setting who had positive perceptions of their work-life balance described their organizational climate as family friendly. Our participants' supervisors allowed for autonomy related to work scheduling, which provided opportunities for work-life balance. These athletic trainers believed that they worked in a climate that was collegial, which was helpful for work-life balance. In addition, the importance of placing family first was part of the climate.

CONCLUSIONS

  The perceptions of our participants revealed a climate of family friendliness, supervisor support, and collegiality among staff members, which facilitated the positive climate for work-life balance. The mindset embraced the importance of family and recognized that work did not always have to supersede personal priorities.

Organizational Infrastructure in the Collegiate Athletic Training Setting, Part II: Benefits of and Barriers in the Athletics Model

CONTEXT

 The athletics model, in which athletic training clinical programs are part of the athletics department, is the predominant model in the collegiate athletic training setting. Little is known about athletic trainers' (ATs') perceptions of this model, particularly as it relates to organizational hierarchy.

OBJECTIVE

 To explore the perceived benefits of and barriers in the athletics model.

DESIGN

 Qualitative study.

SETTING

 National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions I and III.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

 Eight full-time ATs (5 men, 3 women; age = 41 ± 13 years, time employed at the current institution = 14 ± 14 years, experience as a certified AT = 18 ± 13 years) working in the collegiate setting using the athletics model.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

 We conducted semistructured interviews via telephone or in person and used a general inductive approach to analyze the qualitative data. Multiple-analyst triangulation and peer review established trustworthiness.

RESULTS

 Two benefits and 3 barriers emerged from the data. Role identity emerged as a benefit that occurred with role clarity, validation, and acceptance of the collegiate AT personality. Role congruence emerged as a benefit of the athletics model that occurred with 2 lower-order themes: relationship building and physician alignment and support. Role strain, staffing concerns, and work-life conflict emerged as barriers in the athletics model. Role strain occurred with 2 primary lower-order themes: role incongruity and role conflict.

CONCLUSIONS

 The athletics model is the most common infrastructure for employing ATs in collegiate athletics. Participants expressed positive experiences via character identity, support, trust relationships, and longevity. However, common barriers remain. To reduce role strain, misaligning values, and work-life conflict, ATs working in the athletics model are encouraged to evaluate their relationships with coaches and their supervisor and consider team physician alignment. Moreover, measures to increase quality athletic training staff from a care rather than a coverage standpoint should be considered.

Organizational Infrastructure in the Collegiate Athletic Training Setting, Part I: Quality-of-Life Comparisons and Commonalities Among the Models

CONTEXT

 Some anecdotal evidence has suggested that organizational infrastructure may affect the quality of life of athletic trainers (ATs).

OBJECTIVE

 To compare ATs' perspectives on work-life balance, role strain, job satisfaction, and retention in collegiate practice settings within the various models.

DESIGN

 Cross-sectional and qualitative study.

SETTING

 National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions I, II, and III.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

 Fifty-nine ATs from 3 models (athletics = 25, medical = 20, academic = 14) completed phase I. A total of 24 ATs (15 men, 9 women), 8 from each model, also completed phase II.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

 Participants completed a Web-based survey for phase I and were interviewed via telephone for phase II. Quantitative data were analyzed using statistical software. Likert-scale answers (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) to the survey questions were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney U, and Cohen f tests. Qualitative data were evaluated using a general inductive approach. Multiple-analyst triangulation and peer review were conducted to satisfy data credibility.

RESULTS

 Commonalities were communication, social support, and time management and effective work-life balance strategies. Quantitative data revealed that ATs employed in the athletics model worked more hours (69.6 ± 11.8 hours) than those employed in the medical (57.6 ± 10.2 hours; P = .001) or academic (59.5 ± 9.5 hours; P = .02) model, were less satisfied with their pay (2.68 ± 1.1; χ² = 7.757, P = .02; f = 0.394), believed that they had less support from their administrators (3.12 ± 1.1; χ² = 9.512, P = .009; f = 0.443), and had fewer plans to remain in their current positions (3.20 ± 1.2; χ² = 7.134, P = .03; f = 0.374). Athletic trainers employed in the academic model believed that they had less support from coworkers (3.71 ± 0.90; χ² = 6.825, P = .03; f = 0.365) and immediate supervisors (3.43 ± 0.90; χ² = 6.006, P = .050; f = 0.340). No differences in role conflict were found among the models.

CONCLUSIONS

 Organizational infrastructure may play a role in mediating various sources of conflict, but regardless of facilitators, ATs need to be effective communicators, have support networks in place, and possess time-management skills.

Barriers to the Role of the Head Athletic Trainer for Women in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III Settings

CONTEXT

Very few women assume the role of head athletic trainer (AT). Reasons for this disparity include discrimination, motherhood, and a lack of interest in the position. However, data suggest that more women seek the head AT position in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III settings.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the barriers female ATs face as they transition to the role of head AT.

DESIGN

Qualitative study.

SETTING

Divisions II and III.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

In total, 77 female ATs participated in our study. Our participants (38 ± 9 years old) were employed as head ATs at the Division II or III level.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We conducted online interviews with all participants. They journaled their reflections to a series of open-ended questions pertaining to their experiences as head ATs. Data were analyzed following a general inductive approach. Credibility was secured by peer review and researcher triangulation.

RESULTS

Organizational and personal factors emerged as the 2 major themes that described challenges for women assuming the role of the head AT. Organizational barriers were defined by gender stereotyping and the "good old boys" network. Personal influences included a lack of leadership aspirations, motherhood and family, and a lack of mentors.

CONCLUSIONS

Female ATs working in Divisions II or III experienced similar barriers to assuming the role of the head AT as those working in the Division I setting. Stereotyping still exists within collegiate athletics, which limits the number of women in higher-ranking positions; however, a lack of desire to assume a higher position and the desire to balance work and home inhibit some women from moving up.

Navigating Motherhood and the Role of the Head Athletic Trainer in the Collegiate Setting

CONTEXT

Motherhood has been identified as a barrier to the head athletic trainer (AT) position. Role models have been cited as a possible facilitator for increasing the number of women who pursue and maintain this role in the collegiate setting.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the experiences of female ATs balancing motherhood and head AT positions in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics settings.

DESIGN

Qualitative study.

SETTING

National Collegiate Athletic Association Divisions II and III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

A total of 22 female head ATs (average age = 40 ± 8 years) who were married with children completed our study. Our participants had been certified for 15.5 ± 7.5 years and in their current positions as head ATs for 9 ± 8 years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We conducted online interviews with all participants. Participants journaled their reflections on a series of open-ended questions pertaining to their experiences as head ATs. Data were analyzed following a general inductive approach. Credibility was confirmed through peer review and researcher triangulation.

RESULTS

We identified 3 major contributors to work-life conflict. Two speak to organizational influences on conflict: work demands and time of year. The role of motherhood, which was more of a personal contributor, also precipitated conflict for our ATs. Four themes emerged as work-life balance facilitators: planning, attitude and perspective, support networks, and workplace integration. Support was defined at both the personal and professional levels.

CONCLUSIONS

In terms of the organization, our participants juggled long work hours, travel, and administrative tasks. Individually and socioculturally, they overcame their guilt and their need to be present and an active part of the parenting process. These mothers demonstrated the ability to cope with their demanding roles as both moms and head ATs.

Certified Athletic Trainers' Knowledge and Perceptions of Posttraumatic Osteoarthritis After Knee Injury

CONTEXT

  Posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is a specific phenotype of osteoarthritis (OA) that commonly develops after acute knee injury, such as anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) or meniscal injury (or both). Athletic trainers (ATs) are well positioned to educate patients and begin PTOA management during rehabilitation of the acute injury, yet it remains unknown if ATs currently prioritize long-term outcomes in patients with knee injury.

OBJECTIVE

  To investigate ATs' knowledge and perceptions of OA and its treatment after ACL injury, ACL reconstruction, or meniscal injury or surgery.

DESIGN

  Cross-sectional study.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

  An online survey was administered to 2000 randomly sampled certified ATs. We assessed participants' perceptions of knee OA, the risk of PTOA after ACL or meniscal injury or surgery, and therapeutic management of knee OA.

RESULTS

  Of the 437 ATs who responded (21.9%), the majority (84.7%) correctly identified the definition of OA, and 60.3% indicated that they were aware of PTOA. A high percentage of ATs selected full meniscectomy (98.9%), meniscal tear (95.4%), ACL injury (90.2%), and partial meniscectomy (90.1%) as injuries that would increase the risk of developing OA. Athletic trainers rated undertaking strategies to prevent OA development in patients after ACL injury or reconstruction (73.8%) or meniscal injury or surgery (74.7%) as extremely or somewhat important. Explaining the risk of OA to patients with an ACL or meniscal injury was considered appropriate by 98.8% and 96.8% of respondents, respectively; yet a lower percentage reported that they actually explained these risks to patients after an ACL (70.8%) or meniscal injury (80.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

  Although 84.7% of ATs correctly identified the definition of OA, a lower percentage (60.3%) indicated awareness of PTOA. These results may reflect the need to guide ATs on how to educate patients regarding the long-term risks of ACL and meniscal injuries and how to implement strategies that may prevent PTOA.