Microsponges: A novel strategy for drug delivery system

Development of 4-phenylbutyric acid microsponge gel formulations for the treatment of lewisite-mediated skin injury

Lewisite, a chemical warfare agent, causes skin blisters, erythema, edema, and inflammation, requiring mitigation strategies in case of accidental or deliberate exposure. 4-phenyl butyric acid (4-PBA), a chemical chaperone, reduces endoplasmic reticulum stress and skin inflammation. The study aimed to encapsulate 4-PBA in microsponges for effective, sustained delivery against lewisite injury. Porous microsponges in a topical gel would potentially sustain delivery and improve residence time on the skin. Microsponges were developed using the quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method with Eudragit RS100. Optimized formulation showed 10.58%w/w drug loading was incorporated in a carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and Carbopol gel for in vitro release and permeation testing using dermatomed human skin. A sustained release was obtained from all vehicles in the release study, and IVPT results showed that compared to the control (41.52 ± 2.54 µg/sq.cm), a sustained permeation profile with a reduced delivery was observed for microsponges in PBS (14.16 ± 1.23 µg/sq.cm) along with Carbopol 980 gel (12.55 ± 1.41 µg/sq.cm), and CMC gel (10.09 ± 1.23 µg/sq.cm) at 24 h. Optimized formulation showed significant protection against lewisite surrogate phenyl arsine oxide (PAO) challenged skin injury in Ptch1+/-/SKH-1 hairless mice at gross and molecular levels. A reduction in Draize score by 29%, a reduction in skin bifold thickness by 8%, a significant reduction in levels of IL-1β, IL6, and GM-CSF by 54%, 30%, and 55%, respectively, and a reduction in apoptosis by 31% was observed. Thus, the translational feasibility of 4-PBA microsponges for effective, sustained delivery against lewisite skin injury is demonstrated.

Microsponges: Development, Characterization, and Key Physicochemical Properties

Microsponges are promising drug delivery carriers with versatile characteristics and controlled release properties for the delivery of a wide range of drugs. The microsponges will provide an optimized therapeutic effect, when delivered at the site of action without rupturing, then releasing the cargo at the predetermined time and area. The ability of the microsponges to effectively deliver the drug in a controlled manner depends on the material composition. This comprehensive review entails knowledge on the design parameters of an optimized microsponge drug delivery system and the controlled release properties of microsponges that reduces the side effects of drugs. Furthermore, the review delves into the fabrication techniques of microsponges, the mechanism of drug release from the microsponges, and the regulatory requirements of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the successful marketing of microsponge formulation. The review also examines the patented formulations of microsponges. The prospects of these sophisticated drug delivery systems for improved clinical outcomes are highlighted.

Microparticles and multi-unit systems for advanced drug delivery

Microparticles have unique benefits in the formulation of multiparticulate and multi-unit type pharmaceutical dosage forms allowing improved drug safety and efficacy with favorable pharmacokinetics and patient centricity. On the other hand, the above advantages are served by high and well reproducible quality attributes of the medicinal product where even flexible design and controlled processability offer success as well as possible longer product life-cycle for the manufacturers. Moreover, the specific demands of patients can be taken into account, including simplified dosing regimens, flexible dosage, drug combinations, palatability, and ease of swallowing. In the more than 70 years since the first modified-release formulation appeared on the market, many new formulations have been marketed and many publications have appeared in the literature. More unique and newer pharmaceutical technologies and excipients have become available for producing tailor-made particles with micrometer dimensions and beyond. All these have contributed to the fact that the sub-units (e.g. minitablets, pellets, microspheres) that make up a multiparticulate system can vary widely in composition and properties. Some units have mucoadhesive properties and others can float to contribute to a suitable release profile that can be designed for the multiparticulate formula as a whole. Nowadays, there are some available formulations on the market, which are able to release the active substance even for several months (3 or 6 months depending on the type of treatment). In this review, the latest developments in technologies that have been used for a long time are presented, as well as innovative solutions such as the applicability of 3D printing to produce subunits of multiparticulate systems. Furthermore, the diversity of multiparticulate systems, different routes of administration are also presented, touching the ones which are capable of carrying the active substance as well as the relevant, commercially available multiparticle-based medical devices. The versatility in size from 1 µm and multiplicity of formulation technologies promise a solid foundation for the future applications of dosage form design and development.

Nanocosmeceuticals: Trends and Recent Advancements in Self Care

The term cosmetics refers to any substances or products intended for external application on the skin with the aim of protection and better appearance of the skin surface. The skin delivery system promotes the controlled and targeted delivery of active ingredients. The development of this system has been driven by challenges encountered with conventional cosmeceuticals, including low skin retention of active components, limited percutaneous penetration, poor water dispersion of insoluble active ingredients, and instability of effective components. The aim is to create cosmeceuticals that can effectively overcome these issues. This review focuses on various nanocarriers used in cosmeceuticals currently and their applications in skin care, hair care, oral care, and more. The importance of nanotechnology in the sphere of research and development is growing. It provides solutions to various problems faced by conventional technologies, methods, and product formulations thus taking hold of the cosmetic industry as well. Nowadays, consumers are investing in cosmetics only for better appearance thus problems like wrinkles, ageing, hair loss, and dandruff requires to be answered proficiently. Nanocarriers not only enhance the efficacy of cosmeceutical products, providing better and longer-lasting effects, but they also contribute to the improved aesthetic appearance of the products. This dual benefit not only enhances the final quality and efficacy of the product but also increases consumer satisfaction. Additionally, nanocarriers offer protection against UV rays, further adding to the overall benefits of the cosmeceutical product. Figure 1 represents various advantages of nanocarriers used in cosmeceuticals. Nanotechnology is also gaining importance due to their high penetration of actives in the deeper layers of skin. It can be said that nanotechnology is taking over all the drawbacks of the traditional products. Thus, nanocarriers discussed in this review are used in nanotechnology to deliver the active ingredient of the cosmeceutical product to the desired site.

Microencapsulation for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

In order to improve bioavailability, stability, control release, and target delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), as well as to mask their bitter taste, to increase their efficacy, and to minimize their side effects, a variety of microencapsulation (including nanoencapsulation, particle size <100 nm) technologies have been widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. Commonly used microencapsulation technologies are emulsion, coacervation, extrusion, spray drying, freeze-drying, molecular inclusion, microbubbles and microsponge, fluidized bed coating, supercritical fluid encapsulation, electro spinning/spray, and polymerization. In this review, APIs are categorized by their molecular complexity: small APIs (compounds with low molecular weight, like Aspirin, Ibuprofen, and Cannabidiol), medium APIs (compounds with medium molecular weight like insulin, peptides, and nucleic acids), and living microorganisms (such as probiotics, bacteria, and bacteriophages). This article provides an overview of these microencapsulation technologies including their processes, matrix, and their recent applications in microencapsulation of APIs. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of these common microencapsulation technologies in terms of improving the efficacy of APIs for pharmaceutical treatments are comprehensively analyzed. The objective is to summarize the most recent progresses on microencapsulation of APIs for enhancing their bioavailability, control release, target delivery, masking their bitter taste and stability, and thus increasing their efficacy and minimizing their side effects. At the end, future perspectives on microencapsulation for pharmaceutical applications are highlighted.

A Review of Anti-Inflammatory Phytoconstituents Used in Herbal Cosmeceuticals for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis

Skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis affect babies, children, and adults and are characterized by red skin/spots, severe itching that appears on the face, head, legs, neck, and hands, and various causes of illness caused by various external and internal factors. AD is a type IIgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. Herbal preparations treat various dermatological diseases like dry skin, melasma, acne, and eczema. Cosmeceuticals are the connection between cosmetics and medicine, one of the world's most used forms of medicine. Cosmeceuticals products are beneficial in treating AD. Herbal cosmetics play a major role in curing various skin diseases. Today, various herbs used in cosmeceuticals have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiseptic effects. Compared to synthetic preparations, herbal preparations have fewer side effects. This review paper introduces Atopic dermatitis, cosmeceutical, and various phytoconstituents like gallic acid, ferulic acid, boswellic acid, quercetin, and naringenin tetra hydroxyl flavanol glycoside, glycyrrhizic acid, epigallocatechin gallate, etc., used in atopic dermatitis.

Microsponge-Based Gel Loaded with Immunosuppressant as a Simple and Valuable Strategy for Psoriasis Therapy: Determination of Pro-Inflammatory Response through Cytokine IL-2 mRNA Expression

Tacrolimus (TL) is a topical calcineurin inhibitor immunosuppressive drug widely used to manage various skin disorders. Herein, we report a TL-loaded microsphere gel formulation with severe atopic dermatitis effects that are required to manage skin disorders. The current study adopted a modified emulsion solvent evaporation technique to synthesize TL-loaded microspheres, which were further converted into gels for skin use. Characterization of the synthesized formulation was performed by differential dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and drug release. A Franz diffusion cell was used to study the diffusion of TL for up to 8 h at pH 6.8 and 5.5. Evaluation of cell viability was determined by MTT assay and showed higher IC50 values compared to the plain drug. RNA extraction, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and reverse transcription were also performed to determine the expression levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-2. Particle size determination was performed by a zeta sizer, and the TL microsphere size was 1745 ± 70 nm with a good polydispersity (0.337 ± 0.12). The drug entrapment efficiency was also very good at 60% ± 10, and the drug release was 93.9% ± 3.5 within 8 h. An in vitro diffusion study of the formulation also showed improved permeability at both pH values (4.5 and 5.5). The findings of the hemolytic tests demonstrated that TL-MG at concentrations of 50, 100, and 200 mg/mL did not produce any hemolysis. A dose-dependent pattern of cytotoxicity was found during the cell viability assay, with an IC50 value of 787.55 ± 12.78 µg/mL. There was a significant decrease in the IL-2 level in the TL-MG group compared to the other groups. TL-MG microspheres were nontoxic carriers for tacrolimus delivery, with greater loading capacity, a significant release profile, and enhanced cellular uptake with improved permeability.

Alginate Microsponges as a Scaffold for Delivery of a Therapeutic Peptide against Rheumatoid Arthritis

The quest for biocompatible drug-delivery devices that could be able to open new administration routes is at the frontier of biomedical research. In this contribution, porous polysaccharide-based microsponges based on crosslinked alginate polymers were developed and characterized by optical spectroscopy and nanoscopic microscopy techniques. We show that macropores with a size distribution ranging from 50 to 120 nm enabled efficient loading and delivery of a therapeutic peptide (CIGB814), presently under a phase 3 clinical trial for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Alginate microsponges showed 80% loading capacity and sustained peptide release over a few hours through a diffusional mechanism favored by partial erosion of the polymer scaffold. The edible and biocompatible nature of alginate polymers open promising perspectives for developing a new generation of polysaccharide-based carriers for the controlled delivery of peptide drugs, exploiting alternative routes with respect to intravenous administration.

Nanomedicine-fortified cosmeceutical serums for the mitigation of psoriasis and acne

Cosmetics have a long history of use for regenerative and therapeutic purposes that are appealing to both genders. The untapped potential of nanotechnology in cosmeceuticals promises enhanced efficacy and addresses the issues associated with conventional cosmetics. In the field of cosmetics, the incorporation of nanomedicine using various nanocarriers such as vesicle and solid lipid nanoparticles significantly enhances product effectiveness and promotes satisfaction, especially in tackling prevalent skin diseases. Moreover, vesicle-fortified serum is known for high skin absorption with the capacity to incorporate and deliver various therapeutics. Additionally, nano-embedded serum-based cosmeceuticals hold promise for treating various skin disorders, including acne and psoriasis, heralding potential therapeutic advancements. This review explores diverse nanotechnology-based approaches for delivering cosmetics with maximum benefits.

Development of clindamycin loaded oral microsponges (Clindasponges) for antimicrobial enhancement: In vitro characterization and simulated in vivo studies

Clindamycin phosphate (CLP) is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that is used widely for different types of infections. It has a short half-life and hence it should be taken every six hours to ensure adequate antibiotic blood concentration. On the other hand, microsponges are extremely porous polymeric microspheres, offering the prolonged controlled release of the drug. The present study aims to develop and evaluate innovative CLP-loaded microsponges (named Clindasponges) to prolong and control the drug release and enhance its antimicrobial activity, consequently improving patient compliance. The clindasponges were fabricated successfully by quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion technique using Eudragit S100 (ES100) and ethyl cellulose (EC) as carriers at various drug-polymer ratios. Several variables were optimized for the preparation technique including the type of solvent, stirring time, and stirring speed. The clindasponges were then characterized in terms of particle size, production yield, encapsulation efficiency, scanning electron microscopy, FTIR spectroscopy analysis, in vitro drug release with kinetic modeling, and antimicrobial activity study. Moreover, in vivo, pharmacokinetics parameters of CLP from the candidate formula were simulated based on the convolution method and in vitro- in vivo correlation (IVIVC-Level A) was built up successfully. Uniform spherical microsponges with 82.3µm mean particle size with a porous spongy structure were evident. ES2 batch exhibited the highest production yield and encapsulation efficiency (53.75% and 74.57%, respectively) and it was able to exhaust 94% of the drug at the end of 8 hrs of the dissolution test. The release profile data of ES2 was best fitted to Hopfenberg kinetic model. ES2 was significantly (p< 0.05) effective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli compared to the control. Also, ES2 displayed a twofold increase in the simulated AUC compared to the reference marketed product.

Resveratrol-Loaded Microsponge Gel for Wound Healing: In Vitro and In Vivo Characterization

Objectives

The study was aimed to formulate resveratrol (RSV) loaded microsponges to deliver drug at the wound site and incorporate it in the Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) gel base to provide an appropriate moist environment for wound management. RSV, a stilbenoid that activates sirtuins and cell-signaling regulators involved in the process of wound healing.

Materials and Methods

Microsponges were prepared by oil in oil emulsion solvent diffusion method by optimizing the independent variables; drug: polymer ratio and volume of internal phase solvent and their effects on entrapment efficiency and particle size. Formulation batches were evaluated for drug content, production yield, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release. The microsponges were further incorporated into M. oleifera gum gel, which was then evaluated for spreadability, viscosity, ex vivo diffusion study and in vivo studies using an excision wound model in rats.

Results

Scanning electron microscopy revealed spherical and porous nature of the microsponges in vitro-release study of the optimized batch of RSV microsponges showed 80.88% drug release within 8 h. Differential scanning calorimetry results revealed no drug and polymer interaction during the formation of microsponges. An ex vivo diffusion study through goat skin revealed sustained release of RSV through porous microsponges embedded in the gel base at the wound site. An in vivo study performed using an excision wound model showed wound healing and closure within day 8. Histopathology showed increased re-epithelization and reduced ulceration in RSV microsponge gel-treated group compared with sham operated.

Conclusion

RSV microsponge gel delivered the drug at the wound site and the gel base provided a moist environment and influenced cell adhesion, thereby promoting faster wound healing.

Acne Vulgaris-Novel Treatment Options and Factors Affecting Therapy Adherence: A Narrative Review

Acne vulgaris is an extremely common skin condition, affecting a large population of adolescents, but at the same time, remaining a quite common issue in the group of adult patients. Its complex pathogenesis includes increased sebum secretion, impaired follicular keratinization, colonization of sebaceous glands with Cutibacterium acne bacteria, and the development of inflammation in pilosebaceous units. Although there are many methods of treatment available targeting the mechanisms mentioned above, a large percentage of patients remain undertreated or non-compliant with treatment. Ineffective treatment results in the formation of acne scars, which has a major impact on the well-being and quality of life of the patients. The aim of this publication was a review of available evidence on widely used and novel methods of topical and systemic treatment of acne, additionally including current literature-based analysis of factors affecting patients' compliance. The strengths and limitations of novel substances for treating acne were discussed. We conclude that an effective acne treatment remains a challenge. A better understanding of current treatment options and factors affecting patients' compliance could be a helpful tool in choosing a proper treatment option.

Microsponges: a breakthrough tool in pharmaceutical research

Background

A microsponge delivery system (MDS) is an innovative and unique way of delivering drugs in a structured manner. Using microsponge drug delivery, regulated drug delivery may now be achieved quickly and easily.

Main body

MDS comprises porous microspheres ranging in size from 5 to 300 microns, with a large porous structure and a very tiny spherical shape. MDS is normally used to deliver drugs via topical channels, but they have recently shown the potential approach to drug delivery via oral, ophthalmic and parenteral routes. MDS can easily modify the pharmaceutical release contour and improve formulation stability while minimising the negative impact of the drug. The fundamental purpose of microsponge drug administration is to reach the highest possible peak plasma concentration in the blood. The capacity of MDS to self-sterilise is their most prominent attribute.

Conclusions

MDS is used as anti-allergic, anti-mutagenic and non-irritant in innumerable investigations. This review includes formulation, criteria for drugs to be incorporated in MDS, formulation methods, assessment parameters, and role of MDS in the management of various disorders. This review will be quite useful in the future in exploring the MDS in different disorders.

Graphical Abstract

Quality by Design Guided Development of Polymeric Nanospheres of Terbinafine Hydrochloride for Topical Treatment of Onychomycosis Using a Nano-Gel Formulation

Superficial fungal diseases of the skin and nails are an increasingly common occurrence globally, requiring effective topical treatment to avoid systemic adverse effects. Polymeric nanoparticles have demonstrated sustained and effective drug delivery in a variety of topical formulations. The aim of this project was to develop polymeric antifungal nanospheres containing terbinafine hydrochloride (TBH) to be loaded into a hydrogel formulation for topical nail drug delivery. A quality by design (QbD) approach was used to achieve optimized particles with the desired quality target product profile (QTPP). Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) at 2% w/v and a drug to polymer ratio of 1:4, together with a robust set of processes and material attributes, resulted in nanoparticles of 108.7 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.63, 57.43% recovery, and other desirable characteristics such as zeta potential (ZP), particle shape, aggregation, etc. The nanospheres were incorporated into a carbomer-based gel, and the delivery of TBH through this formulation was evaluated by means of in vitro drug release testing (IVRT) and ex vivo nail permeation study. The gel containing the TBH nanospheres demonstrated a slower and controlled drug release profile compared with the control gel, in addition to a more efficient delivery into the nail. These antifungal nanospheres can be utilized for topical therapy of a multitude of superficial fungal infections.

Silicones in dermatological topical drug formulation: Overview and advances

Silicones, more specifically those of the polydimethylsiloxane type, have been widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for decades, particularly in topical applications. In the dermatological field, in addition to provide undeniable textural and sensory benefits, they can play important functions in the physicochemical properties, stability and biopharmaceutical behavior of these formulations. However, despite the notable advances that can be attributed to the family of silicones, the reputation of these compounds is quite bad. Indeed, silicones, even if they derive from sand, are synthetic compounds. Moreover, they are not biodegradable. They flow into our wastewater and oceans, accumulating in the fauna and flora. This obviously raises many concerns in the common imagination. Do silicones represent a danger for our environment? Should the human species worry about long term toxic effects? Are the claimed benefits really that important? After exploring the various applications of silicone excipients in topical dermatological formulations with a special focus on recent advances which open breathtaking prospects for dermatological applications, this paper shed light on the specific challenges involved in preparation of silicone-based drug as well as, the in vivo behavior of these polymers, the toxicological and environmental risks associated with their application.

K, Pilaquinga F, Kumar B, Debut A. Comparative statistical analysis of the release kinetics models for nanoprecipitated drug delivery systems based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) is one of the most used polymers for drug delivery systems (DDSs). It shows excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and allows spatio-temporal control of the release of a drug by altering its chemistry. In spite of this, few formulations have reached the market. To characterize and optimize the drug release process, mathematical models offer a good alternative as they allow interpreting and predicting experimental findings, saving time and money. However, there is no general model that describes all types of drug release of polymeric DDSs. This study aims to perform a statistical comparison of several mathematical models commonly used in order to find which of them best describes the drug release profile from PLGA particles synthesized by nanoprecipitation method. For this purpose, 40 datasets extracted from scientific articles published since 2016 were collected. Each set was fitted by the models: order zero to fifth order polynomials, Korsmeyer-Peppas, Weibull and Hyperbolic Tangent Function. Some data sets had few observations that do not allow to apply statistic test, thus bootstrap resampling technique was performed. Statistic evidence showed that Hyperbolic Tangent Function model is the one that best fit most of the data.

Therapeutic application of microsponges based drug delivery system

Microsponges delivery system (MDS) is highly porous, cross-linked based polymeric systems, that activates in the presence of temperature, rubbing and pH. MDS offers wide range of advantage, like controlled drug release, site-specific action, stable over a broad range of pH, poor irritation, cost effective, improved patient compliance. They can be transformed into various dosage forms like creams, gels, and lotions. MDS based system are suitable for treatment of topical disorders like acne, psoriasis, dandruff, eczema, scleroderma, hair loss, skin cancer, and other dreadful diseases. MDS application for drug delivery is not limited to topical drug delivery but also explored for oral, parenteral and pulmonary drug delivery. Microsponges were studied for colon targeting of drugs and genes. Additionally, MDS has wide application for sunscreen, cosmetics, and over the counter (OTC) products. Furthermore, MDS does not actuate any irritation, genotoxicity, immunogenicity or cytotoxicity. Therefore, this review extensively highlights about microsponges, their advantages, key factors affecting the micro-sponges' characteristics, the therapeutic application of microsponges in topical disorders, cancer, as cosmetics, recent advances in MDS and addresses the associated challenges.

Synthesis and Characterization of Polymeric Microspheres Template for a Homogeneous and Porous Monolith

Monolith is an emerging technology applicable for separation, filtration, and chromatography due to its interconnected pore structure. However, the current templates used to form monolith pores are associated with poor heat dissipation, uneven pore size distribution, and relatively low mechanical strength during monolith scale-up. Templates made from polymeric microsphere particles were synthesized via a solvent evaporation technique using different types of polymer (polystyrene, polycaprolactone, polypropylene, polyethylene, and poly (vinyl-alcohol) at varied polymer (10-40 wt%) and surfactant (5-10%) concentrations. The resulting microsphere particles were tested as a monolith template for the formation of homogenous pores. Among the tested polymers, polystyrene at 10 wt% concentration demonstrated good particle morphology determined to around 1.94-3.45 µm. The addition of surfactant at a concentration of 7-10 wt% during microsphere synthesis resulted in the formation of well-shaped and non-aggregating microsphere particles. In addition, the template has contributed to the production of porous monoliths with enhanced thermal stability. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated monolith degradation between 230 °C and 450 °C, implying the material excellent mechanical strength. The findings of the study provide insightful knowledge on the feasibility of polymeric microsphere particles as a pore-directing template to fabricate monoliths with desired pore structures.

Nano intervention in topical delivery of corticosteroid for psoriasis and atopic dermatitis-a systematic review

Atopic dermatitis (AD) and psoriasis are highly prevalent, complex, chronic inflammatory skin diseases that immensly affect the patient's quality of life. While there is no definitive cure for these conditions, suppressive medications aim at managing the symptoms of these diseases. The application of emollients accompanied by symptomatic anti-inflammatory therapy consisting of topical corticosteroids (TCS) is extensively employed for controlling the symptoms among general practitioners making this therapeutic class an indispensable pillar of dermatotherapeutics. The first TCS, hydrocortisone (HC) introduced in the early 1950s led to the development of different steroidal moieties of varying potencies by inducing chemical modifications to the basic steroid structure. The wide spectrum of the available range of formulations and potency provides flexibility to treat all patient groups, different phases of the diseases, and different anatomical sites. Conventional TCS therapy suffers from drawbacks such as low drug permeation and retention rate. Thus, novel nanoformulations have been developed to overcome these problems. This review provides an insight into the current state of nanocarrier-mediated topical delivery of corticosteroids monotherapy and combination therapy with special emphasis on targeting psoriasis and AD.

Pleiotropic nature of curcumin in targeting multiple apoptotic-mediated factors and related strategies to treat gastric cancer: A review

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the major reasons for cancer-associated death and exhibits the second-highest mortality rate worldwide. Several advanced approaches have been designed to treat GC; however, these strategies possess many innate complications. In view of this, the upcoming research relying on natural products could result in designing potential anticancer agents with fewer side effects. Curcumin, isolated from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. has several medicinal properties like antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, antitumor, and antimetastatic. Such pleiotropic nature of curcumin impedes the invasion and proliferation of GC by targeting several oncogenic factors like p23, human epidermal factor receptor2 including Helicobacter pylori. The side effect of chemotherapy, that is, chemotherapeutic resistance and radiotherapy could be reduced combination therapy of curcumin. Moreover, the photodynamic therapy of curcumin destroys the cancer cells without affecting normal cells. However, further more potential studies are required to establish the potent efficacy of curcumin in the treatment of GC. The current review details the anticancer activities of curcumin and related strategies which could be employed to treat GC with additional focus on its inhibitory properties against viability, proliferation, and migration of GC cells through cell cycle arrest and stimulation by apoptosis-mediated factors.

50 Years of Topical Retinoids for Acne: Evolution of Treatment

Since the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved tretinoin in 1971, retinoids alone or combined with other agents have become the mainstay of acne treatment. Retinoids act through binding to retinoic acid receptors, altering expression levels of hundreds of cellular proteins affecting multiple pathways involved in acne pathogenesis. Retinoids have evolved from first-generation agents, such as tretinoin, through chemical modifications resulting in a second generation (etretinate and acitretin for psoriasis), a third generation (adapalene and tazarotene) and, most recently, a fourth (trifarotene). For all topical retinoids, local irritation has been associated with poor tolerability and suboptimal adherence. Efforts to improve tolerability have utilized novel delivery systems and/or novel agents. This qualitative literature review summarizes the evolution of the four topical single-agent retinoids available for the treatment of acne in the US today and their various formulations, presenting the rationale behind their development and data from key studies.

Sponge particulates for biomedical applications: Biofunctionalization, multi-drug shielding, and theranostic applications

Sponge particulates have attracted enormous attention in biomedical applications for superior properties, including large porosity, elastic deformation, capillary action, and three-dimensional (3D) reaction environment. Especially, the tiny porous structures make sponge particulates a promising platform for drug delivery, tissue engineering, anti-infection, and wound healing by providing abundant reservoirs of broad surface and internal network for cargo shielding and shuttling. To control the sponge-like morphology and improve the diversity of drug loading, some optimized preparation techniques of sponge particulates have been developed, contributing to the simplified preparation process and improved production reproducibility. Bio-functionalized strategies, including target modification, cell membrane camouflage, and hydrogel of sponge particulates have been applied to modulate the properties, improve the performance, and extend the applications. In this review, we highlight the unique physical properties and functions, current manufacturing techniques, and an overview of spongy particulates in biomedical applications, especially in inhibition of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infectivity. Moreover, the current challenges and prospects of sponge particulates are discussed rationally, providing an insight into developing vibrant fields of sponge particulates-based biomedicine.

Microsponge carrier for the safe and effective delivery of mycophenolate mofetil

The current study was designed for the delivery of mycophenolate mofetil using microsponges. Quasi-emulsification and double-emulsification techniques were used to develop ethyl cellulose (EC)- and xanthan gum-facilitated EC microsponges. The microsponges were characterized using micromeritics, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and surface morphology, particle size and zeta potential analyses; in vitro drug release and release kinetics were assessed by using various kinetic models. The studies revealed that the prepared microsponges offer free-flow properties with an adequate release profile and spherical porous surface morphology. The FTIR study did not reveal any interaction among the ingredients. XRD analysis confirmed the amorphous nature of mycophenolate mofetil. In vitro release studies showed that the sustained effect was maintained successfully up to 8 h. It can be concluded from the results that both EC and xanthan gum played an important role in the formulation of controlled-release microsponges of mycophenolate mofetil.

Formulation, Development and Evaluation of Budesonide Oral Nano-sponges Using DOE Approach: In Vivo Evidences

Purpose: The prevalent types of idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease are ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease, which affects a large number of populations. Budesonide (BUD) is a glucocorticoid with potent anti-inflammatory activity but low systemic efficacy because of high receptor affinity and rapid diversion. To overcome low efficacy and availability, a novel BUD nano-sponges was formulated using quasi- solvent diffusion and Eudragit S-100 as polymer. It was then investigated for the effect of process variables using Box-Behnken design.

Methods: The BUD Nano sponges were evaluated for particle size, particle size, polydispersity, percent drug entrapment, drug release pattern. The formulation was evaluated by an in vivo study using male Wistar rats and parameters such as clinical activity score, colon/body weight ratio (C/B ratio), macroscopic ulceration (damage score) activity were performed. Finally, histopathological examination was performed on colon tissue samples.

Results: The formulation showed better efficacy and availability as compared with the available formulations of BUD, which indicates the good efficacy of the formulated nanosponges. The clinical activity score was attenuated by the formulated nanosponges in the Wistar rats. The colon to body weight ratio was significantly reduced as compared with the control formulation. The histopathology of colon treated with nanosponges showed normal structure and architecture of the colon.

Conclusion: The results of the present work confirmed the utility of BUD nano-sponges as novel carriers in management IBD.

Cellulose microsponges based gel of naringenin for atopic dermatitis: Design, optimization, in vitro and in vivo investigation

Naringenin, a bioflavonoid, is a natural alternative for atopic dermatitis that possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and photo-protective action. The primary objective of this study is to prepare and evaluate naringenin-loaded microsponge gel for dermatitis. Ethyl cellulose based microsponges of naringenin were prepared by quasi-emulsion-solvent diffusion and statistically optimized by 3² factorial design. After in vitro characterization, optimized microsponge batch (Trial 3) was incorporated into Carbopol base to prepare 1% naringenin-loaded microsponge gel (NGMSG1%) which was evaluated for skin irritation, in vivo efficacy and drug deposition in DNFB-challenged albino Wistar rats in comparison to 1% plain naringenin gel (NGG1%). The average particle size and in vitro drug release of optimized microsponge formulation was observed to be 180 μm and 92.3% ± 2.37 at the end of 24 h, and entrapment was achieved till 82%. SEM study confirmed porous, spherical shaped microsponges whereas FTIR and DSC data supported the formation of microsponges. No skin irritation was observed with NGMSG and NGG in animals. NGMSG1% showed faster healing, substantial reduction in thickness of swollen earflap and WBC count than NGG1%. Similarly, NGMSG showed 3-fold greater drug deposition in skin than plain gel. Thus, naringenin loaded microsponge gel can be further explored as natural remedy for atopic dermatitis.

Controlled Shape and Porosity of Polymeric Colloids by Photo-Induced Phase Separation

The shape and porosity of polymeric colloids are two properties that highly influence their ability to accomplish specific tasks. For micro-sized colloids, the control of both properties was demonstrated by the photo-induced phase separation of droplets of NOA81—a thiol-ene based UV-curable adhesive—mixed with acetone, water, and polyethylene glycol. The continuous phase was perfluoromethyldecalin, which does not promote phase separation prior to UV activation. A profound influence of the polymer concentration on the particle shape was observed. As the photo-induced phase separation is triggered by UV radiation, polymerization drives the extracted solution out of the polymeric matrix. The droplets of the extracted solution coalesce until they form a dimple correlated to the polymer concentration, significantly changing the shape of the formed solid colloids. Moreover, control could be gained over the porosity by varying the UV intensity, which governs the kinetics of the reaction, without changing the chemical composition; the number of nanopores was found to increase significantly at higher intensities.

Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin in gastric cancer

Despite recent advancements in understanding of the biology of gastric cancer, treatment of patients with advanced gastric cancer remains a major problem. Among different type of phytochemicals, curcumin, a welltable -known phytochemical, has been shown to be a promising cancer chemopreventive agent. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and efficacy of curcumin have been evaluated in several clinical trials against numerous diseases, and for the treatment of human cancer. In the present review, we have collected in vitro and in vivo investigations and studied the chemosensitizing and anticancer effects of curcumin against the gastric cancer cells. In summary, curcumin has been found to have efficient chemosensitizing effect and also inhibits viability, proliferation, and migration of gastric cancer cells mainly via cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis by both mitochondrial-dependent and -independent pathways.

Gastroretentive Microsponge as a Promising Tool for Prolonging the Release of Mitiglinide Calcium in Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus: Optimization and Pharmacokinetics Study

Diabetes mellitus is one of the leading causes of death due to the persistent hyperglycemia that leads to potential complications. Lack of patients' adherence to their prescribed medication regimens, due to the requirement of frequent dosing, leads to failure of 40-50% of patients to manage their disease. Thus, microsponges of the novel short half-life mitiglinide calcium (MTG) were formulated using Quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method, employing Eudragit RS100, ethyl cellulose, and polyvinyl alcohol, then characterized in terms of production yield, entrapment efficiency, particle size, in vitro buoyancy, in vitro drug release, and in vivo pharmacokinetics in rabbits. Optimization was done using response surface methodology; the optimized formulation was investigated by FTIR, DSC, and SEM. Results revealed that the optimized MTG microsponge was successfully formulated with high production yield (61.61% ± 0.6), entrapment efficiency (77.7% ±1.37), and particle size of 192.76 μm and it remained buoyant over simulated gastric fluid for 24 h with high percentage of in vitro buoyancy (91.01% ± 2.5). Moreover, it sustained the in vitro drug release with cumulative % release of 83.74 ± 1.5 after 24 h. This microsponge was highly porous in nature with interconnected pores where MTG was entrapped with good compatibility as confirmed by SEM, DSC, and FTIR analysis; Pharmacokinetic studies showed improvement in C_max and AUC_0-∞ (1.92- and 20.68-fold, respectively) with marked prolongation in MRT and t_1/2 (7.22- and 7.97-fold, respectively) than the marketed tablet. Thus, it is a promising approach to improve diabetic patients' compliance by eliminating the necessity of frequent dosing thus attaining better diabetes control.

Encapsulation and controlled release of retinol from silicone particles for topical delivery

Retinol, a derivative of vitamin A, is a ubiquitous compound used to treat acne, reduce wrinkles and protect against conditions like psoriasis and ichthyosis. While retinol is used as the primary active ingredient (AI) in many skin care formulations, its efficacy is often limited by an extreme sensitivity to degrade and toxicity at high concentrations. While microencapsulation is an appealing method to help overcome these issues, few microencapsulation strategies have made a major translational impact due to challenges with complexity, cost, limited protection of the AI and poor control of the release of the AI. We have developed a class of silicone particles that addresses these challenges for the encapsulation, protection and controlled release of retinol and other hydrophobic compounds. The particles are prepared by the sol-gel polymerization of silane monomers, which enables their rapid and facile synthesis at scale while maintaining a narrow size distribution (i.e., CV < 20%). We show that our particles can: (i) encapsulate retinol with high efficiency (>85%), (ii) protect retinol from degradation (yielding a half-life 9× greater than unencapsulated retinol) and (iii) slowly release retinol over several hours (at rates from 0.14 to 0.67 μg cm^-2 s^-1/2). To demonstrate that the controlled release of retinol from the particles can reduce irritation, we performed a double blind study on human subjects and found that formulations containing our particles were 12-23% less irritating than identical formulations containing Microsponge® particles (an industry standard by Amcol, Inc.). To show that the silicone particles can elicit a favorable biological response, similar to the Microsponge® particles, we applied both formulations to reconstructed human epidermal tissues and found an upregulation of keratin 19 (K19) and a downregulation of K10, indicating that the reduced irritation observed in the human study was not caused by reduced activity. We also found a decrease in the production of interleukin-1α (IL-1α) compared to formulations containing the Microsponge particles, suggesting lower irritation levels and supporting the findings from the human study. Finally, we show that the silicone particles can encapsulate other AIs, including betamethasone, N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), homosalate and ingenol mebutate, establishing these particles as a true platform technology.

Porous Inorganic Drug Delivery Systems-a Review

Innovative methods and materials have been developed to overcome limitations associated with current drug delivery systems. Significant developments have led to the use of a variety of materials (as excipients) such as inorganic and metallic structures, marking a transition from conventional polymers. Inorganic materials, especially those possessing significant porosity, are emerging as good candidates for the delivery of a range of drugs (antibiotics, anticancer and anti-inflammatories), providing several advantages in formulation and engineering (encapsulation of drug in amorphous form, controlled delivery and improved targeting). This review focuses on key selected developments in porous drug delivery systems. The review provides a short broad overview of porous polymeric materials for drug delivery before focusing on porous inorganic materials (e.g. Santa Barbara Amorphous (SBA) and Mobil Composition of Matter (MCM)) and their utilisation in drug dosage form development. Methods for their preparation and drug loading thereafter are detailed. Several examples of porous inorganic materials, drugs used and outcomes are discussed providing the reader with an understanding of advances in the field and realistic opportunities.

Bioadhesive floating microsponges of cinnarizine as novel gastroretentive delivery: Capmul GMO bioadhesive coating versus acconon MC 8-2 EP/NF with intrinsic bioadhesive property

Introduction:

The study was aimed at the development of low-density gastroretentive bioadhesive microsponges of cinnarizine by two-pronged approach (i) coating with bioadhesive material and (ii) exploration of acconon MC 8-2 EP/NF as bioadhesive raw material for fabrication.

Materials and Methods:

Microsponges were prepared by quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method using 3² factorial design. Capmul GMO was employed for bioadhesive coating. In parallel, potential of acconon for the fabrication of bioadhesive floating microsponges (A8) was assessed.

Results:

Formulation with entrapment efficiency = 82.4 ± 3.4%, buoyancy = 82.3 ± 2.5%, and correlation of drug release (CDR_8h) = 88.7% ± 2.9% was selected as optimized formulation (F8) and subjected to bioadhesive coating (BF8). The %CDR_8h for A8 was similar to BF8 (87.2% ± 3.5%). Dynamic in vitro bioadhesion test revealed comparable bioadhesivity with BF8. The ex vivo permeation across gastric mucin displayed 63.16% for BF8 against 56.74% from A8; affirmed the bioadhesivity of both approaches.

Conclusion:

The study concluded with the development of novel bioadhesive floating microsponges of cinnarizine employing capmul GMO as bioadhesive coating material and confirmed the viability of acconon MC 8-2EP/NF as bioadhesive raw material for sustained targeted delivery of drug.

Fabrication, characterization, and evaluation of microsponge delivery system for facilitated fungal therapy

OBJECTIVE

The rationale behind present research vocation was to develop and investigate a novel microsponge based gel as a topical carrier for the prolonged release and cutaneous drug deposition of fluconazole (FLZ); destined for facilitated fungal therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Microsponges were prepared using quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method using Eudragit S-100. In the direction of optimization, the effect of formulation variables (drug-polymer ratio and amount of emulsifier) and diverse factors affecting physical characteristics of microsponge were investigated as well. Fabricated microsponges were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform-infrared, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), particle size analysis, and also evaluated for drug content, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro drug release and in vitro antifungal activity.

RESULTS

Compatibility studies results reflected no sign of any chemical interaction between the drug and polymers used. Whereas, varied drug-polymer ratios and emulsifier concentration indicated significant effect on production yield, drug content, encapsulation efficiency, particle size and drug release. Spherical microsponges with a porous surface and 29.327 ± 0.31 μm mean particle size were evident from SEM micrographs. In vitro release outcomes, from microsponge loaded gels depicted that F1 formulation was more efficient to give extended drug release of 85.38% at the end of 8 h, while conventional formulation by releasing 83.17% of drug got exhausted incredibly earlier at the end of 4 h merely. Moreover, microsponge gels demonstrated substantial spreadability and extrudability along with promising antifungal activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Fabricated microsponges would be impending pharmaceutical topical carriers of FLZ and a leading alternative to conventional therapy for efficient, safe and facilitated eradication of fungal infections.

Assessing the viability of microsponges as gastro retentive drug delivery system of curcumin: optimization and pharmacokinetics

The work was aimed to validate the gastroretentive potential of microsponges via optimization of targeted floating curcumin microsponges for improved site specific absorption for gastric cancer Modified quasi emulsion solvent diffusion method was used to formulate microsponges using 3(2) full factorial design. The effect of different levels of ethyl cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol concentration, selected as independent variables was determined on the % entrapment efficiency, % buoyancy and % cumulative drug release. Modified rosette rise apparatus was used for in vitro release and the release data best fitted Higuchi's model and mechanism of drug release was diffusion (n). The optimized formulation (MS5) demonstrated favourable % entrapment efficiency (90.7 ± 1.7), % buoyancy (82.0 ± 2.0) and % cumulative drug release (85.2 ± 1.07) with maximum desirability factor of 0.816. SEM revealed spherical and porous microsponges. DSC confirmed molecular dispersion of the drug in the microsponges polymeric matrix. DRIFT revealed no chemical interaction between the drug and polymer used. The in vitro permeation of curcumin through gastric mucin gel layer affirmed the capability of microsponges to deliver drug across mucin r and reach the target site to treat gastric cancer. Anticancer oral dose of microsponges was calculated as 50mg by cytotoxicity assay in human cancer cell line KB. The pharmacokinetic evaluation of MS5 in rabbits revealed 10-fold increase in bioavailability as compared to native curcumin, demonstrated the superiority of microsponges over native curcumin as gastro retentive drug delivery system. This study presents a new approach based on floating ability of microsponges for treatment of gastric cancer.