Cla4, but not Rac1, regulates the filamentous response of Ustilago maydis to low ammonium conditions

Cla4A, a Novel Regulator of Gene Expression Networks Required for Asexual and Insect-Pathogenic Lifecycles of Beauveria bassiana

Cla4, an orthologous p21-activated kinase crucial for non-entomopathogenic fungal lifestyles, has two paralogs (Cla4A/B) functionally unknown in hypocrealean entomopathogens. Here, we report a regulatory role of Cla4A in gene expression networks of Beauveria bassiana required for asexual and entomopathogenic lifecycles while Cla4B is functionally redundant. The deletion of cla4A resulted in severe growth defects, reduced stress tolerance, delayed conidiation, altered conidiation mode, impaired conidial quality, and abolished pathogenicity through cuticular penetration, contrasting with no phenotype affected by cla4B deletion. In ∆cla4A, 5288 dysregulated genes were associated with phenotypic defects, which were restored by targeted gene complementation. Among those, 3699 genes were downregulated, including more than 1300 abolished at the transcriptomic level. Hundreds of those downregulated genes were involved in the regulation of transcription, translation, and post-translational modifications and the organization and function of the nuclear chromosome, chromatin, and protein-DNA complex. DNA-binding elements in promoter regions of 130 dysregulated genes were predicted to be targeted by Cla4A domains. Samples of purified Cla4A extract were proven to bind promoter DNAs of 12 predicted genes involved in multiple stress-responsive pathways. Therefore, Cla4A acts as a novel regulator of genomic expression and stability and mediates gene expression networks required for insect-pathogenic fungal adaptations to the host and environment.

An Optimized Ustilago maydis for Itaconic Acid Production at Maximal Theoretical Yield

Ustilago maydis, a member of the Ustilaginaceae family, is a promising host for the production of several metabolites including itaconic acid. This dicarboxylate has great potential as a bio-based building block in the polymer industry, and is of special interest for pharmaceutical applications. Several itaconate overproducing Ustilago strains have been generated by metabolic and morphology engineering. This yielded stabilized unicellular morphology through fuz7 deletion, reduction of by-product formation through deletion of genes responsible for itaconate oxidation and (glyco)lipid production, and the overexpression of the regulator of the itaconate cluster ria1 and the mitochondrial tricarboxylate transporter encoded by mttA from Aspergillus terreus. In this study, itaconate production was further optimized by consolidating these different optimizations into one strain. The combined modifications resulted in itaconic acid production at theoretical maximal yield, which was achieved under biotechnologically relevant fed-batch fermentations with continuous feed.

Integrated strain- and process design enable production of 220 g L-1 itaconic acid with Ustilago maydis

BACKGROUND

Itaconic acid is an unsaturated, dicarboxylic acid which finds a wide range of applications in the polymer industry and as a building block for fuels, solvents and pharmaceuticals. Currently, Aspergillus terreus is used for industrial production, with titers above 100 g L-1 depending on the conditions. Besides A. terreus, Ustilago maydis is also a promising itaconic acid production host due to its yeast-like morphology. Recent strain engineering efforts significantly increased the yield, titer and rate of production.

RESULTS

In this study, itaconate production by U. maydis was further increased by integrated strain- and process engineering. Next-generation itaconate hyper-producing strains were generated using CRISPR/Cas9 and FLP/FRT genome editing tools for gene deletion, promoter replacement, and overexpression of genes. The handling and morphology of this engineered strain were improved by deletion of fuz7, which is part of a regulatory cascade that governs morphology and pathogenicity. These strain modifications enabled the development of an efficient fermentation process with in situ product crystallization with CaCO3. This integrated approach resulted in a maximum itaconate titer of 220 g L-1, with a total acid titer of 248 g L-1, which is a significant improvement compared to best published itaconate titers reached with U. maydis and with A. terreus.

CONCLUSION

In this study, itaconic acid production could be enhanced significantly by morphological- and metabolic engineering in combination with process development, yielding the highest titer reported with any microorganism.

The putative phospholipase Lip2 counteracts oxidative damage and influences the virulence of Ustilago maydis

Ustilago maydis is an obligate biotrophic fungal pathogen which causes common smut disease of corn. To proliferate in host tissue, U. maydis must gain access to nutrients and overcome plant defence responses, such as the production of reactive oxygen species. The elucidation of the mechanisms by which U. maydis meets these challenges is critical for the development of strategies to combat smut disease. In this study, we focused on the contributions of phospholipases (PLs) to the pathogenesis of corn smut disease. We identified 11 genes encoding putative PLs and characterized the transcript levels for these genes in the fungus grown in culture and during infection of corn tissue. To assess the contributions of specific PLs, we focused on two genes, lip1 and lip2, which encode putative phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂ ) enzymes with similarity to platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolases. PLA₂ enzymes are known to counteract oxidative damage to lipids in other organisms. Consistent with a role in the mitigation of oxidative damage, lip2 mutants were sensitive to oxidative stress provoked by hydrogen peroxide and by increased production of reactive oxygen species caused by inhibitors of mitochondrial functions. Importantly, mutants defective in lip2, but not lip1, were attenuated for virulence in corn seedlings. Finally, a comparative analysis of fatty acid and cardiolipin profiles in the wild-type strain and a lip2 mutant revealed differences consistent with a protective role for Lip2 in maintaining lipid homeostasis and mitochondrial health during proliferation in the hostile host environment.

Physical and genetic interaction between ammonium transporters and the signaling protein Rho1 in the plant pathogen Ustilago maydis

Dimorphic transitions between yeast-like and filamentous forms occur in many fungi and are often associated with pathogenesis. One of the cues for such a dimorphic switch is the availability of nutrients. Under conditions of nitrogen limitation, fungal cells (such as those of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Ustilago maydis) switch from budding to pseudohyphal or filamentous growth. Ammonium transporters (AMTs) are responsible for uptake and, in some cases, for sensing the availability of ammonium, a preferred nitrogen source. Homodimer and/or heterodimer formation may be required for regulating the activity of the AMTs. To investigate the potential interactions of Ump1 and Ump2, the AMTs of the maize pathogen U. maydis, we first used the split-ubiquitin system, followed by a modified split-YFP (yellow fluorescent protein) system, to validate the interactions in vivo. This analysis showed the formation of homo- and hetero-oligomers by Ump1 and Ump2. We also demonstrated the interaction of the high-affinity ammonium transporter, Ump2, with the Rho1 GTPase, a central protein in signaling, with roles in controlling polarized growth. This is the first demonstration in eukaryotes of the physical interaction in vivo of an ammonium transporter with the signaling protein Rho1. Moreover, the Ump proteins interact with Rho1 during the growth of cells in low ammonium concentrations, a condition required for the expression of the Umps. Based on these results and the genetic evidence for the interaction of Ump2 with both Rho1 and Rac1, another small GTPase, we propose a model for the role of these interactions in controlling filamentation, a fundamental aspect of development and pathogenesis in U. maydis.

Defects in mitochondrial and peroxisomal β-oxidation influence virulence in the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis

An understanding of metabolic adaptation during the colonization of plants by phytopathogenic fungi is critical for developing strategies to protect crops. Lipids are abundant in plant tissues, and fungal phytopathogens in the phylum basidiomycota possess both peroxisomal and mitochondrial β-oxidation pathways to utilize this potential carbon source. Previously, we demonstrated a role for the peroxisomal β-oxidation enzyme Mfe2 in the filamentous growth, virulence, and sporulation of the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis. However, mfe2 mutants still caused disease symptoms, thus prompting a more detailed investigation of β-oxidation. We now demonstrate that a defect in the had1 gene encoding hydroxyacyl coenzyme A dehydrogenase for mitochondrial β-oxidation also influences virulence, although its paralog, had2, makes only a minor contribution. Additionally, we identified a gene encoding a polypeptide with similarity to the C terminus of Mfe2 and designated it Mfe2b; this gene makes a contribution to virulence only in the background of an mfe2Δ mutant. We also show that short-chain fatty acids induce cell death in U. maydis and that a block in β-oxidation leads to toxicity, likely because of the accumulation of toxic intermediates. Overall, this study reveals that β-oxidation has a complex influence on the formation of disease symptoms by U. maydis that includes potential metabolic contributions to proliferation in planta and an effect on virulence-related morphogenesis.