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Klitzing L, Kirsch K, Schindler M, Merle R, Hoffmann G, Thöne-Reineke C, Wiegard M. Exploring factors that influence the behavior response to novel object tests in young thoroughbred horses: investigating sex, test site and auction history. Front Vet Sci 2025; 11:1478350. [PMID: 39881719 PMCID: PMC11776089 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1478350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2024] [Accepted: 12/30/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2025] Open
Abstract
Introduction The novel object test is one of the three most common fear tests in veterinary science and employed in several different species. Although having been applied in several different studies in horses, it is surprising that there is no standardized test procedure available for these kinds of tests. Methods This study investigated the performance of the novel object test on 42 young Thoroughbred horses to determine the effect of sex (mare or stallion), test sites (round pen or paddock) and whether the horses had previously participated in an auction or not on the behavior during the novel object test. Results Differences in horses' behavior during the novel object test were primarily attributed to the test sites. The animals showed significant (p < 0.05) intra-individual differences in the novel object test in the round pen and in the paddock. Sex did not affect the direct interaction with the novel object. The horses that had not participated in an auction seemed to actively perceive the novel object more quickly, so that the latency to first fixation on the object was significantly shorter. Discussion In order to obtain comparable results, it is recommended that novel object tests should be performed at the same location and under identical conditions. Furthermore, it is important to consider the individual behavior of each horse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Klitzing
- Institute for Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katharina Kirsch
- Institute for Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maria Schindler
- Institute for Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roswitha Merle
- Institute for Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gundula Hoffmann
- Department Sensors and Modelling, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Potsdam, Germany
| | - Christa Thöne-Reineke
- Institute for Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mechthild Wiegard
- Institute for Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Yin Z, Torre E, Marrot M, Peters CH, Feather A, Nichols WG, Logantha SJRJ, Arshad A, Martis SA, Ozturk NT, Chen W, Liu J, Qu J, Zi M, Cartwright EJ, Proenza C, Torrente A, Mangoni ME, Dobrzynski H, Atkinson AJ. Identifying sex similarities and differences in structure and function of the sinoatrial node in the mouse heart. Front Med (Lausanne) 2024; 11:1488478. [PMID: 39703520 PMCID: PMC11655232 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2024.1488478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 11/26/2024] [Indexed: 12/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The sinoatrial node (SN) generates the heart rate (HR). Its spontaneous activity is regulated by a complex interplay between the modulation by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and intrinsic factors including ion channels in SN cells. However, the systemic and intrinsic regulatory mechanisms are still poorly understood. This study aimed to elucidate the sex-specific differences in heart morphology and SN function, particularly focusing on basal HR, expression and function of hyperpolarization-activated HCN4 and HCN1 channels and mRNA abundance of ion channels and mRNA abundance of ion channels contributing to diastolic depolarization (DD) and spontaneous action potentials (APs). Methods Body weight, heart weight and tibia length of 2- to 3-month-old male and female mice were measured. Conscious in-vivo HR of male and female mice was recorded via electrocardiography (ECG). Unconscious ex-vivo HR, stroke volume (SV) and ejection fraction (EF) were recorded via echocardiography. Ex-vivo HR was measured via Langendorff apparatus. Volume of atria, ventricles and whole hearts were measured from the ex-vivo hearts by microcomputed tomography (micro-CT). Immunohistochemistry targeting HCN4 and HCN1 was conducted in the SN and RA tissues from both male and female hearts. The funny current (I f) of SN cells in 1 nM and following wash-on of 1 μM isoproterenol (ISO) were recorded via whole cell patch clamp. The APs of SN tissue were recorded via sharp microelectrode and optical mapping of membrane voltage. The relative abundance of mRNAs was measured in male and female mice by qPCR. Results Heart weight to tibia length ratio and heart volume of females were significantly smaller than males. Unconscious in-vivo HR in male mice was higher than that in females. Conscious in-vivo HR, ex-vivo HR, SV, and EF showed no notable difference between male and female mice. Immunohistochemistry revealed HCN4, HCN1, and the sum of HCN4 and HCN1, expression in the SN was notably elevated compared with the RA in both male and females, but there was no sex difference in these channels expression. There were also no significant sex differences in the V 0.5 of I f in SN cells in the presence of 1 nM ISO, however wash-on 1 μM ISO in the same cells induced a significantly increased shift of V 0.5 to more positive voltages in males than in females. The expression of mRNA coding for adrenergic receptor beta-1 (Adrb1) and cholinergic receptors muscarinic 2 (chrm2) in male mice was higher compared with that in female mice. Early diastolic depolarization (EDD) rate in APs from peripheral SN (pSN) from male mice were higher than these in female mice. Mice of both sexes showed equivalent frequency of SN APs and spatial localization of the leading site in control, and similar significant response to ISO 100 nM superfusion. Conclusion Males display faster in-vivo HR, but not ex-vivo HR, than females associated with increased expression of Adrb1 in male versus female. This suggests a possible difference in the β-adrenergic modulation in males and females, possibly related to the greater ISO response of I f observed in cells from males. The role of hormonal influences or differential expression of other ion channels may explain these sex-specific variations in HR dynamics. Further investigations are necessary to pinpoint the precise molecular substrates responsible for these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeyuan Yin
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Eleonora Torre
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Manon Marrot
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
- Laboratory of Excellence Ion Channels Science and Therapeutics (ICST), Valbonne, France
| | - Colin H. Peters
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Amy Feather
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - William G. Nichols
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Sunil Jit R. J. Logantha
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine and Liverpool Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Areej Arshad
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Simran Agnes Martis
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Nilay Tugba Ozturk
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Weixuan Chen
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Jiaxuan Liu
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Jingmo Qu
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Min Zi
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth J. Cartwright
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine Proenza
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Angelo Torrente
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Matteo E. Mangoni
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Université de Montpellier CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Halina Dobrzynski
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Department of Anatomy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Andrew J. Atkinson
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Ryu SH, Lee KE, Forbes E, An SJ, Kim JG, Lee H, Kim BS. Behavioral and cardiac responses to a model startle test to assess retired Thoroughbred racehorses for equestrians. J Vet Sci 2024; 25:e84. [PMID: 39608778 PMCID: PMC11611493 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.24177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2024] [Revised: 10/05/2024] [Accepted: 10/20/2024] [Indexed: 11/30/2024] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Equine behavioral traits are important criteria to assess the suitability of retired Thoroughbred racehorses for equestrian sports. OBJECTIVE This study aims to develop a practical procedure to assess retired Thoroughbreds for their suitability for equestrian sports or leisure purposes and to assess if horses identified as having reactive temperaments in response to a standardized startle test, will have improved test results following a period of transition training. METHODS Behavioral reactivity data and cardiac autonomic responses to a startle test (comprising of a plastic bag applied to the neck area) were collected from twelve retired Thoroughbred racehorses (6 males and 6 females; average age: 4.33 ± 0.89 years old; average body weight 465.17 ± 25.33 kg), before and after the three-month transition training for equestrian sports. A priori power calculation indicated a requirement of 12 individuals for a power of 80%. RESULTS Following the training, there was a significant reduction in the behavioral score (BS), peak heart rate (HR), and response duration (RD) of all horses compared to their pre-training scores. However, 25% of horses (3/12) retained a BS of 2 or above post-training, exhibiting significantly higher peak HR and longer RD compared to those with a BS below 2. Post-training, the females demonstrated a significant increase in the root mean square of the successive differences between normal heartbeats compared to their pre-training levels. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Transition training of retired Thoroughbreds can assist in improving horses' suitability for equestrian sports, based on their successive responses to a novel startle test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Ho Ryu
- Department of Equine Science, Cheju Halla University, Jeju 63092, Korea
| | - Kyung-Eun Lee
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Eliot Forbes
- Racing Integrity Board, Private Bag 17902, Greenlane, Auckland 1546, New Zealand
| | - Sung-Jun An
- Department of Intelligent System Engineering, Cheju Halla University, Jeju 63092, Korea
| | - Joon Gyu Kim
- Department of Equine Science, Cheju Halla University, Jeju 63092, Korea
| | - Hang Lee
- Center for Animal Welfare Research, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Byung Sun Kim
- Department of Equine Science, Cheju Halla University, Jeju 63092, Korea.
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Hall C, Kay R. Living the good life? A systematic review of behavioural signs of affective state in the domestic horse ( Equus caballus) and factors relating to quality of life. Part 2: Horse-human interactions. Anim Welf 2024; 33:e41. [PMID: 39469043 PMCID: PMC11514268 DOI: 10.1017/awf.2024.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 10/30/2024]
Abstract
Quality of life is dependent upon the extent to which behavioural needs are met, and the balance between pleasant and unpleasant lifetime experiences. In Part II of this systematic review, articles (n = 109) relating to horse-human interactions were reviewed to identify behavioural evidence of their positive or negative impact on the horse. The number of articles (n = 22) relating to the recognition of pain in horses, indicated the importance of identifying health issues, which are also likely to increase the aversiveness of interactions. These and articles relating to emotional reactivity testing in horses (n = 19), the behaviour of horses during handling and management procedures (n = 17), behaviour of the horse when ridden (n = 17), non-procedural horse-human interactions (n = 13), horse behaviour during transportation (n = 12) and behaviour during training other than when ridden (n = 9) were reviewed. During most interactions, horse behaviour is controlled and/or restricted by the human, masking negative or positive signs, and may be confounded by factors including fear and individual differences. In situations involving freedom of movement, positive experiences of horses with humans were associated with approach behaviour, negative ones with avoidance, but training could affect both. Undoubtedly, change is needed to reduce the extent to which interactions with humans are unpleasant for the horse. Only when the needs of the horse are fulfilled and interactions with humans are predominantly pleasurable will their quality of life improve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Hall
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell, Nottinghamshire NG25 0QF, UK
- National Equine Welfare Council, Slad Lane, Princes Risborough, Bucks HP27 0PP, UK
| | - Rachel Kay
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell, Nottinghamshire NG25 0QF, UK
- National Equine Welfare Council, Slad Lane, Princes Risborough, Bucks HP27 0PP, UK
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Eichler F, Ehrle A, Machnik M, Jensen KC, Wagner S, Baudisch N, Bolk J, Pötzsch M, Thevis M, Bäumer W, Lischer C, Wiegard M. Behavioral observations, heart rate and cortisol monitoring in horses following multiple oral administrations of a cannabidiol containing paste (part 2/2). Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1305873. [PMID: 38234983 PMCID: PMC10791836 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1305873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
As a remedy against stress and anxiety, cannabidiol (CBD) products are of increasing interest in veterinary medicine. Limited data is available describing the actual effectiveness of CBD in horses. The aim of this study (part 2 of 2) was to analyze stress parameters via behavioral observation, heart rate monitoring and assessment of blood and saliva cortisol levels in healthy horses treated repeatedly with a CBD containing paste. Twelve horses were randomly assigned to a treatment or a control group. Two pastes were orally administered in a double-blinded study design, one paste containing CBD and one paste without active ingredient. Both pastes were administered twice daily over 15 days (dose: 3 mg CBD/kg). Behavioral observations were conducted daily using a sedation score and a rating of facial expressions, based on the previously described facial sedation scale for horses (FaceSed) and the Horse Grimace Scale. Blood and saliva samples were obtained regularly to determine cortisol levels throughout the study. Cortisol levels were analyzed by means of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). Behavioral observations and cortisol levels were compared between groups. Prior to paste administration, a novel object test was performed and the horses' reaction to loading on a trailer was recorded. Both tests were repeated after 13 days of paste application. Movement patterns such as different gaits during the novel object test were evaluated and an ethogram was designed to assess exhibited behavioral traits. Cardiac beat-to-beat (R-R) intervals were recorded throughout and evaluated using heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) parameters. Blood and saliva samples for cortisol analysis were taken before and after the tests. Daily behavioral observations and cortisol levels did not differ between the treatment and the control group. Similarly, analysis of movement patterns, HR, HRV and cortisol levels during the novel object test and trailer test did not identify significant differences between the groups. Regularly administered oral CBD (3 mg/kg BID over 15 days) had no statistically significant effect on behavioral observations, cortisol levels, HR and HRV in horses. Further research is required to establish adequate doses and indications for the use of CBD in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Eichler
- Equine Clinic, Veterinary Hospital Freie Universität Berlin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Ehrle
- Equine Clinic, Veterinary Hospital Freie Universität Berlin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marc Machnik
- Center for Preventive Doping Research, Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Katharina Charlotte Jensen
- Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabrina Wagner
- Center for Preventive Doping Research, Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Natalie Baudisch
- Equine Clinic, Veterinary Hospital Freie Universität Berlin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia Bolk
- Equine Clinic, Veterinary Hospital Freie Universität Berlin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Magdalena Pötzsch
- Equine Clinic, Veterinary Hospital Freie Universität Berlin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research, Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Bäumer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Lischer
- Equine Clinic, Veterinary Hospital Freie Universität Berlin, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mechthild Wiegard
- Institute of Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Seganfreddo S, Fornasiero D, De Santis M, Mutinelli F, Normando S, Contalbrigo L. A Pilot Study on Behavioural and Physiological Indicators of Emotions in Donkeys. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091466. [PMID: 37174503 PMCID: PMC10177292 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Recognizing animal emotions is critical to their welfare and can lead to a better relationship with humans and the environment, especially in a widespread species like the donkey, which is often prone to welfare issues. This study aims to assess the emotional response of donkeys through an operant conditioning task with two presumed different emotional contents. Specifically, a within-subject design including positive and negative conditions was conducted, collecting behavioural and physiological (heart rate variability and HRV) parameters. Facial expressions, postures, and movements were analysed by principal component analysis and behavioural diversity indexes (frequencies, activity budgets, richness, Shannon and Gini-Simpson). During the positive condition, both ears were held high and sideways (left: r = -0.793, p < 0.0001; right: r = -0.585, p = 0.011), while the ears were frontally erected (left: r = 0.924, p < 0.0001; right: r = 0.946, p < 0.0001) during the negative one. The latter was also associated with an increased tendency to walk (r = 0.709, p = 0.001), walk away (r = 0.578, p = 0.012), more frequent changes in the body position (VBody position = 0, p = 0.022), and greater behavioural complexity (VGini-Simpson Index = 4, p = 0.027). As for HRV analysis, the root mean square of successive beat-to-beat differences (rMSSD) was significantly lower after the negative condition. These non-invasive parameters could be considered as possible indicators of donkeys' emotional state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samanta Seganfreddo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Diletta Fornasiero
- Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Public Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Marta De Santis
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Franco Mutinelli
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Simona Normando
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, Università degli Studi di Padova, Viale dell'Università 14, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Laura Contalbrigo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
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Identification of Personality-Related Candidate Genes in Thoroughbred Racehorses Using a Bioinformatics-Based Approach Involving Functionally Annotated Human Genes. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040769. [PMID: 36830556 PMCID: PMC9951868 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Considering the personality traits of racehorses (e.g., flightiness, anxiety, and affability) is considered essential to improve training efficiency and decrease accident frequency, especially when retraining for a second career that may involve contact with inexperienced personnel after retiring from racing. Studies on human personality-related genes are frequently conducted; however, such studies are rare in horses because a consistent methodology for personality evaluation is lacking. Using the recently published whole genome variant database of 101 Thoroughbred horses, we compared horse genes orthologous to human genes related to the Big Five personality traits, and identified 18 personality-related candidate genes in horses. These genes include 55 variants that involve non-synonymous substitutions that highly impact the encoded protein. Moreover, we evaluated the allele frequencies and functional impact on the proteins in terms of the difference in molecular weights and hydrophobicity levels between reference and altered amino acids. We identified 15 newly discovered genes that may affect equine personality, but their associations with personality are still unclear. Although more studies are required to compare genetic and behavioral information to validate this approach, it may be useful under limited conditions for personality evaluation.
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De Santis M, Seganfreddo S, Greco A, Normando S, Benedetti D, Mutinelli F, Contalbrigo L. Donkey Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability: A Scoping Review. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:408. [PMID: 36766295 PMCID: PMC9913831 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) are commonly used physiological measures in animals. While several studies exist on horse HRV, less information is available for donkeys. This scoping review aims to understand the extent and type of published evidence on donkey HR and HRV, their clinical and research applications, the devices used, and the analysis performed. Only quantitative primary studies published in English were considered. Four different databases were queried through the Web of Science platform, with additional evidence identified by citation chasing. After a two-stage screening phase, data were extracted considering study and population characteristics, information on HR/HRV analysis, and applications. The majority of the 87 included articles (about 80%) concerned a sample size of up to 20 individuals and were published since 2011 (about 65%). Forty-one articles employed an electronic device for signal acquisition (mainly electrocardiographs and heart rate monitors), yet only two articles reported HRV parameters. The literature on donkey HRV is lacking, and this gap can be filled by gaining knowledge on donkey characteristics and finding useful tools for welfare assessment. Comparison with what is known about the horse allows a discussion of the technical and interpretative difficulties that can be encountered with donkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta De Santis
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Samanta Seganfreddo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Alberto Greco
- Research Center “E. Piaggio”, Largo Lucio Lazzarino, 1, 56122 Pisa, Italy
| | - Simona Normando
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, Università degli Studi di Padova, Viale dell’Università, 14, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Daniele Benedetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Franco Mutinelli
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Laura Contalbrigo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università, 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
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Song Y, Day CM, Afinjuomo F, Tan JQE, Page SW, Garg S. Advanced Strategies of Drug Delivery via Oral, Topical, and Parenteral Administration Routes: Where Do Equine Medications Stand? Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15010186. [PMID: 36678815 PMCID: PMC9861747 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
While the global market for veterinary products has been expanding rapidly, there is still a lack of specialist knowledge of equine pharmaceutics. In many cases, the basic structure of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and integumentary system of the horse shares similarities with those of humans. Generally, the dosage form developed for humans can be repurposed to deliver equine medications; however, due to physiological variation, the therapeutic outcomes can be unpredictable. This is an area that requires more research, as there is a clear deficiency in literature precedence on drug delivery specifically for horses. Through a careful evaluation of equine anatomy and physiology, novel drug delivery systems (NDDSs) can be developed to adequately address many of the medical ailments of the horse. In addition to this, there are key considerations when delivering oral, topical, and parenteral drugs to horses, deriving from age and species variation. More importantly, NDDSs can enhance the duration of action of active drugs in animals, significantly improving owner compliance; and ultimately, enhancing the convenience of product administration. To address the knowledge gap in equine pharmaceutical formulations, this paper begins with a summary of the anatomy and physiology of the equine gastrointestinal, integumentary, and circulatory systems. A detailed discussion of potential dosage-form related issues affecting horses, and how they can be overcome by employing NDDSs is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunmei Song
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Candace M. Day
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Franklin Afinjuomo
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Jin-Quan E. Tan
- SA Pharmacy, Flinders Medical Centre, Southern Adelaide Local Health Network, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Stephen W. Page
- Advanced Veterinary Therapeutics, Newtown, NSW 2042, Australia
| | - Sanjay Garg
- Centre for Pharmaceutical Innovation (CPI), Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-8-8302-1575
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Grzędzicka J, Dąbrowska I, Malin K, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. Exercise-related changes in the anabolic index (testosterone to cortisol ratio) and serum amyloid A concentration in endurance and racehorses at different fitness levels. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1148990. [PMID: 37138908 PMCID: PMC10150884 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1148990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased training loads in both human and equine athletes are generally implemented to improve their physical performance. These loads are tolerated only within appropriate training periodization with regard to recovery time. Otherwise, training overload causes failure in the systemic adaptation, which at first leads to overreaching, and progressively to overtraining syndrome (OTS). Exercise endocrinology, and anabolic/catabolic balance as an indicator of athlete performance status and OTS has continued to attract attention. In human medicine, changes in testosterone and cortisol levels, as well as the testosterone to cortisol ratio (T/C; anabolic index), are suggested to be sensitive stress markers. However, there is a lack of research investigating these parameters for use in equine sports medicine. The aim of the study was to investigate the differences in testosterone, cortisol, and T/C in response to a single training session in two types of equine sports: endurance and race, together with serum amyloid A (SAA), the main acute phase response indicator of physical effort, and the overall health status in horses. Two groups of horses were enrolled in the study: endurance (n = 12) and racehorses (n = 32) of different fitness level. Blood samples were obtained before and after the exercise. On average, T increased 2.5 times after the race training in experienced racehorses and dropped in endurance horses regardless the fitness level (p < 0.05). In endurance horses, a decrease in T/C occurred after training in inexperienced horses (p < 0.05). In racehorses, a T/C decrease occurred in the inexperienced group (p < 0.05) and an increase in the experienced (p < 0.01). In conclusion, T/C ratio was found to be a potentially reliable indicator of fitness status especially in racing horses. These findings provide insight into the physiological response of the horses to different types of exercise and the potential use of hormone levels as markers of performance and adaptation.
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11
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Kapteijn CM, Frippiat T, van Beckhoven C, van Lith HA, Endenburg N, Vermetten E, Rodenburg TB. Measuring heart rate variability using a heart rate monitor in horses ( Equus caballus) during groundwork. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:939534. [PMID: 36483490 PMCID: PMC9723354 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.939534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Measuring physiological parameters of stress in horses during groundwork, for example when involved in equine-assisted interventions, is important to gain insight into the stress levels of the horses. Heart rate and heart rate variability can be used as physiological indicators of stress in horses. Heart rate monitors could be easily incorporated into practice, as they are not expensive and easy to use. However, it is questionable whether heart rate monitors present accurate heart rate variability results in exercising horses, similar to electrocardiograms. The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of heart rate monitors for the assessment of heart rate variability in horses during groundwork exercise. Simultaneous telemetric electrocardiograms (Televet) and heart rate monitor (Polar H10 transmitter and M430 receiver, Hylofit electrodes) recordings were performed on 28 horses (15 mares and 13 geldings). Results indicate that the heart rate monitor accurately determined heart rate and time-domain heart rate variability parameters when compared to electrocardiograms during both baseline and groundwork conditions. As expected, heart rate significantly increased and the heart rate variability significantly decreased during groundwork compared to baseline conditions. This indicates that the heart rate monitor can be used to accurately determine heart rate variability during groundwork.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal M Kapteijn
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Hein A van Lith
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Nienke Endenburg
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - T Bas Rodenburg
- Animals in Science and Society, Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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12
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Ask K, Andersen PH, Tamminen LM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E. Performance of four equine pain scales and their association to movement asymmetry in horses with induced orthopedic pain. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:938022. [PMID: 36032285 PMCID: PMC9411665 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.938022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective This study investigated the relationship between orthopedic pain experienced at rest, and degree of movement asymmetry during trot in horses with induced reversible acute arthritis. Orthopedic pain was assessed with the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), the Equine Utrecht University Scale of Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP), the Equine Pain Scale (EPS), and the Composite Orthopedic Pain Scale (CPS). Reliability and diagnostic accuracy were evaluated with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and area under the curve (AUC). Study design and animals Eight healthy horses were included in this experimental study, with each horse acting as its own control. Methods Orthopedic pain was induced by intra-articular lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. Serial pain assessments were performed before induction and during pain progression and regression, where three observers independently and simultaneously assessed pain at rest with the four scales. Movement asymmetry was measured once before induction and a minimum of four times after induction, using objective gait analysis. Results On average 6.6 (standard deviation 1.2) objective gait analyses and 12.1 (2.4) pain assessments were performed per horse. The ICC for each scale was 0.75 (CPS), 0.65 (EPS), 0.52 (HGS), and 0.43 (EQUUS-FAP). Total pain scores of all scales were significantly associated with an increase in movement asymmetry (R2 values ranging from −0.0649 to 0.493); with CPS pain scores being most closely associated with movement asymmetry. AUC varied between scales and observers, and CPS was the only scale where all observers had a good diagnostic accuracy (AUC > 0.72). Conclusions and clinical relevance This study identified significant associations between pain experienced at rest and degree of movement asymmetry for all scales. Pain scores obtained using CPS were most closely associated with movement asymmetry. CPS was also the most accurate and reliable pain scale. All scales had varying linear and non-linear relations between total pain scores and movement asymmetry, illustrating challenges with orthopedic pain assessment during rest in subtly lame horses since movement asymmetry needs to be rather high before total pain score increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Ask
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Katrina Ask
| | - Pia Haubro Andersen
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lena-Mari Tamminen
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marie Rhodin
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elin Hernlund
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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13
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Nagahara R, Suganuma S, Tsuda T, Shibutani T, Enomoto S. Acute effects of dermal suctioning on back pain in racehorses: a pilot study. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/cep220007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Back pain is a common clinical condition that leads to poor performance in racehorses. Therefore, horse owners would benefit from a suitable and effective treatment that results in the early recovery of their horses. Dermal suctioning significantly improves chronic lower back pain in humans. Thus, if a similar effect were to be found in racehorses, it could become a new treatment for back pain in horses. In this study, we examined the acute effects of dermal suctioning on back pain in racehorses. Twelve Thoroughbred racehorses with back pain underwent 10 min of dermal suctioning in the thoracolumbar region. The pain score, mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), heart rate variability (HRV), and plasma cortisol concentrations were measured. Results showed that pain scores were significantly improved immediately after dermal suctioning (P=0.028), while MNT, HRV, and plasma cortisol concentrations did not show significant changes (P>0.05). These results indicate that dermal suctioning immediately relieves pain but has a limited effect on the other three parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S. Suganuma
- Northern Farm Tenei, Fukushima 962-0516, Japan
| | - T. Tsuda
- Northern Farm, Hokkaido 059-1432, Japan
| | - T. Shibutani
- Institute of Sports Sciences, International Pacific University, Okayama 709-0863, Japan
- MJ Company K.K., Okayama 700-0953, Japan
| | - S. Enomoto
- Center for Liberal Arts, Meiji Gakuin University, Yokohama 244-8539, Japan
- Institute for Promotion of Education and Campus Life, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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14
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Liehrmann O, Viitanen A, Riihonen V, Alander E, Koski SE, Lummaa V, Lansade L. Multiple handlers, several owner changes and short relationship lengths affect horses’ responses to novel object tests. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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15
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Wiśniewska A, Janczarek I, Wilk I, Tkaczyk E, Mierzicka M, Stanley CR, Górecka-Bruzda A. Heterospecific Fear and Avoidance Behaviour in Domestic Horses ( Equus caballus). Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3081. [PMID: 34827813 PMCID: PMC8614530 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ridden horses have been reported to be fearful of cows. We tested whether cows could provoke behavioural and cardiac fear responses in horses, and whether these responses differ in magnitude to those shown to other potential dangers. Twenty horses were exposed to cow, a mobile object or no object. The time spent at different distances from the stimulus was measured. In a separate test, heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats (RMSSD) and the horses' perceived fear were assessed at various distances from the stimuli. The horses avoided the area nearest to all stimuli. During hand-leading, the cow elicited the highest HR and lowest RMSSD. Led horses' responses to the cow and box were rated as more fearful as the distance to the stimulus decreased. Mares had a higher HR than geldings across all tests. HR positively correlated with the fearfulness rating at the furthest distance from the cow and box, and RMSSD negatively correlated with this rating in cow and control conditions. Our results show that these horses' avoidance response to cows was similar or higher to that shown towards a novel moving object, demonstrating that potentially, both neophobia and heterospecific communication play a role in this reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Wiśniewska
- Department of Horse Breeding and Use, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (A.W.); (I.J.); (I.W.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Iwona Janczarek
- Department of Horse Breeding and Use, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (A.W.); (I.J.); (I.W.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Izabela Wilk
- Department of Horse Breeding and Use, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (A.W.); (I.J.); (I.W.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Ewelina Tkaczyk
- Department of Horse Breeding and Use, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (A.W.); (I.J.); (I.W.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Martyna Mierzicka
- Department of Horse Breeding and Use, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (A.W.); (I.J.); (I.W.); (E.T.); (M.M.)
| | - Christina R. Stanley
- Animal Behaviour & Welfare Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Chester, Chester CH1 4BJ, UK;
| | - Aleksandra Górecka-Bruzda
- Department of Animal Behaviour and Welfare, Institute of Genetics and Animal Biotechnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-552 Magdalenka, Poland
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