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In Situ Observations of Wind Turbines Wakes with Unmanned Aerial Vehicle BOREAL within the MOMEMTA Project. ATMOSPHERE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13050775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The MOMENTA project combines in situ and remote sensing observations, wind tunnel experiments, and numerical modeling to improve the knowledge of wake structure in wind farms in order to model its impact on the wind turbines and to optimize wind farm layout. In this context, we present the results of a first campaign conducted with a BOREAL unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) designed to measure the three wind components with a horizontal resolution as fine as 3 m. The observations were performed at a wind farm where six turbines were installed. Despite the strong restrictions imposed by air traffic control authorities, we were able to document the wake area of two turbines during two flights in April 2021. The flight patterns consisted of horizontal racetracks with various orientations performed at different distances from the wind turbines; thus, horizontal wind speed fields were built in which the wind reduction area in the wake is clearly displayed. On a specific day, we observed an overspeed area between the individual wakes of two wind turbines, likely resulting from the cumulative effect of the wakes generated behind two successive rows of turbines. This study demonstrates the potential of BOREAL to document turbine wakes.
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Shaw JT, Shah A, Yong H, Allen G. Methods for quantifying methane emissions using unmanned aerial vehicles: a review. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20200450. [PMID: 34565219 PMCID: PMC8473951 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Methane is an important greenhouse gas, emissions of which have vital consequences for global climate change. Understanding and quantifying the sources (and sinks) of atmospheric methane is integral for climate change mitigation and emission reduction strategies, such as those outlined in the 2015 UN Paris Agreement on Climate Change. There are ongoing international efforts to constrain the global methane budget, using a wide variety of measurement platforms across a range of spatial and temporal scales. The advancements in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology over the past decade have opened up a new avenue for methane emission quantification. UAVs can be uniquely equipped to monitor natural and anthropogenic emissions at local scales, displaying clear advantages in versatility and manoeuvrability relative to other platforms. Their use is not without challenge, however: further miniaturization of high-performance methane instrumentation is needed to fully use the benefits UAVs afford. Developments in the models used to simulate atmospheric transport and dispersion across small, local scales are also crucial to improved flux accuracy and precision. This paper aims to provide an overview of currently available UAV-based technologies and sampling methodologies which can be used to quantify methane emission fluxes at local scales. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Rising methane: is warming feeding warming? (part 1)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob T. Shaw
- Centre for Atmospheric Science, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Adil Shah
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement (LSCE), CEA CNRS, UVSQ UPSACLAY, Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Han Yong
- Centre for Atmospheric Science, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Grant Allen
- Centre for Atmospheric Science, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Sun Y, Ma J, Sude B, Lin X, Shang H, Geng B, Diao Z, Du J, Quan Z. A UAV-Based Eddy Covariance System for Measurement of Mass and Energy Exchange of the Ecosystem: Preliminary Results. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:E403. [PMID: 33430163 PMCID: PMC7827954 DOI: 10.3390/s21020403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Airborne eddy covariance (EC) measurement is one of the most effective methods to directly measure the surface mass and energy fluxes at the regional scale. It offers the possibility to bridge the scale gap between local- and global-scale measurements by ground-based sites and remote-sensing instrumentations, and to validate the surface fluxes estimated by satellite products or process-based models. In this study, we developed an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based EC system that can be operated to measure the turbulent fluxes in carbon dioxides, momentum, latent and sensible heat, as well as net radiation and photosynthetically active radiation. Flight tests of the developed UAV-based EC system over land were conducted in October 2020 in Inner Mongolia, China. The in-flight calibration was firstly conducted to correct the mounting error. Then, three flight comparison tests were performed, and we compared the measurement with those from a ground tower. The results, along with power spectral comparison and consideration of the differing measurement strategies indicate that the system can resolve the turbulent fluxes in the encountered measurement condition. Lastly, the challenges of the UAV-based EC method were discussed, and potential improvements with further development were explored. The results of this paper reveal the considerable potential of the UAV-based EC method for land surface process studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yibo Sun
- Institute of Ecological Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; (Y.S.); (J.M.); (Z.D.); (J.D.)
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Ecological Processes and Functions Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- Integrated Ecological Observation and Research Station of Jinggangshan, Jinggangshan 343699, China
| | - Junyong Ma
- Institute of Ecological Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; (Y.S.); (J.M.); (Z.D.); (J.D.)
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Ecological Processes and Functions Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Bilige Sude
- Institute of Ecological Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; (Y.S.); (J.M.); (Z.D.); (J.D.)
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Ecological Processes and Functions Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- Integrated Ecological Observation and Research Station of Jinggangshan, Jinggangshan 343699, China
| | - Xingwen Lin
- Collage of Geography and Environment Science, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China;
| | - Haolu Shang
- Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100028, China;
| | - Bing Geng
- Research Institute for Eco-Civilization, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing 100028, China;
| | - Zhaoyan Diao
- Institute of Ecological Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; (Y.S.); (J.M.); (Z.D.); (J.D.)
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Ecological Processes and Functions Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Jiaqiang Du
- Institute of Ecological Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China; (Y.S.); (J.M.); (Z.D.); (J.D.)
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Regional Ecological Processes and Functions Assessment, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Zhanjun Quan
- Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
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Unmanned Aerial Systems for Investigating the Polar Atmospheric Boundary Layer—Technical Challenges and Examples of Applications. ATMOSPHERE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos11040416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) fill a gap in high-resolution observations of meteorological parameters on small scales in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). Especially in the remote polar areas, there is a strong need for such detailed observations with different research foci. In this study, three systems are presented which have been adapted to the particular needs for operating in harsh polar environments: The fixed-wing aircraft M 2 AV with a mass of 6 kg, the quadrocopter ALICE with a mass of 19 kg, and the fixed-wing aircraft ALADINA with a mass of almost 25 kg. For all three systems, their particular modifications for polar operations are documented, in particular the insulation and heating requirements for low temperatures. Each system has completed meteorological observations under challenging conditions, including take-off and landing on the ice surface, low temperatures (down to −28 ∘ C), icing, and, for the quadrocopter, under the impact of the rotor downwash. The influence on the measured parameters is addressed here in the form of numerical simulations and spectral data analysis. Furthermore, results from several case studies are discussed: With the M 2 AV, low-level flights above leads in Antarctic sea ice were performed to study the impact of areas of open water within ice surfaces on the ABL, and a comparison with simulations was performed. ALICE was used to study the small-scale structure and short-term variability of the ABL during a cruise of RV Polarstern to the 79 ∘ N glacier in Greenland. With ALADINA, aerosol measurements of different size classes were performed in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, in highly complex terrain. In particular, very small, freshly formed particles are difficult to monitor and require the active control of temperature inside the instruments. The main aim of the article is to demonstrate the potential of UAS for ABL studies in polar environments, and to provide practical advice for future research activities with similar systems.
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Bailey SCC, Canter CA, Sama MP, Houston AL, Smith SW. Unmanned aerial vehicles reveal the impact of a total solar eclipse on the atmospheric surface layer. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2019; 475:20190212. [PMID: 31611717 DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2019.0212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We use unmanned aerial vehicles to interrogate the surface layer processes during a solar eclipse and gain a comprehensive look at the changes made to the atmospheric surface layer as a result of the rapid change of insolation. Measurements of the atmospheric surface layer structure made by the unmanned systems are connected to surface measurements to provide a holistic view of the impact of the eclipse on the near-surface behaviour, large-scale turbulent structures and small-scale turbulent dynamics. Different regimes of atmospheric surface layer behaviour were identified, with the most significant impact including the formation of a stable layer just after totality and evidence of Kelvin-Helmholtz waves appearing at the interface between this layer and the residual layer forming above it. The decrease in surface heating caused a commensurate decrease in buoyant turbulent production, which resulted in a rapid decay of the turbulence in the atmospheric surface layer both within the stable layer and in the mixed layer forming above it. Significant changes in the wind direction were imposed by the decrease in insolation, with evidence supporting the formation of a nocturnal jet, as well as backing of the wind vector within the stable layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean C C Bailey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Caleb A Canter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Michael P Sama
- Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Adam L Houston
- Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Suzanne Weaver Smith
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
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Moving towards a Network of Autonomous UAS Atmospheric Profiling Stations for Observations in the Earth's Lower Atmosphere: The 3D Mesonet Concept. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19122720. [PMID: 31213000 PMCID: PMC6631695 DOI: 10.3390/s19122720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The deployment of small unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) to collect routine in situ vertical profiles of the thermodynamic and kinematic state of the atmosphere in conjunction with other weather observations could significantly improve weather forecasting skill and resolution. High-resolution vertical measurements of pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and wind direction are critical to the understanding of atmospheric boundary layer processes integral to air–surface (land, ocean and sea ice) exchanges of energy, momentum, and moisture; how these are affected by climate variability; and how they impact weather forecasts and air quality simulations. We explore the potential value of collecting coordinated atmospheric profiles at fixed surface observing sites at designated times using instrumented UAS. We refer to such a network of autonomous weather UAS designed for atmospheric profiling and capable of operating in most weather conditions as a 3D Mesonet. We outline some of the fundamental and high-impact science questions and sampling needs driving the development of the 3D Mesonet and offer an overview of the general concept of operations. Preliminary measurements from profiling UAS are presented and we discuss how measurements from an operational network could be realized to better characterize the atmospheric boundary layer, improve weather forecasts, and help to identify threats of severe weather.
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Comparison of CFD Simulation to UAS Measurements for Wind Flows in Complex Terrain: Application to the WINSENT Test Site. ENERGIES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/en12101992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This investigation presents a modelling strategy for wind-energy studies in complex terrains using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). A model, based on an unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) approach with a modified version of the standard k-ε model, is applied. A validation study based on the Leipzig experiment shows the ability of the model to simulate atmospheric boundary layer characteristics such as the Coriolis force and shallow boundary layer. By combining the results of the model and a design of experiments (DoE) method, we could determine the degree to which the slope, the leaf area index, and the forest height of an escarpment have an effect on the horizontal velocity, the flow inclination angle, and the turbulent kinetic energy at critical positions. The DoE study shows that the primary contributor at a turbine-relevant height is the slope of the escarpment. In the second step, the method is extended to the WINSENT test site. The model is compared with measurements from an unmanned aircraft system (UAS). We show the potential of the methodology and the satisfactory results of our model in depicting some interesting flow features. The results indicate that the wakes with high turbulence levels downstream of the escarpment are likely to impact the rotor blade of future wind turbines.
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The Multi-Purpose Airborne Sensor Carrier MASC-3 for Wind and Turbulence Measurements in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19102292. [PMID: 31109010 PMCID: PMC6566615 DOI: 10.3390/s19102292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
For atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) studies, unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) can provide new information in addition to traditional in-situ measurements, or by ground- or satellite-based remote sensing techniques. The ability of fixed-wing UAS to transect the ABL in short time supplement ground-based measurements and the ability to extent the data horizontally and vertically allows manifold investigations. Thus, the measurements can provide many new possibilities for investigating the ABL. This study presents the new mark of the Multi-Purpose Airborne Sensor Carrier (MASC-3) for wind and turbulence measurements and describes the subsystems designed to improve the wind measurement, to gain endurance and to allow operations under an enlarged range of environmental conditions. The airframe, the capabilities of the autopilot Pixhawk 2.1, the sensor system and the data acquisition software, as well as the post-processing software, provide the basis for flight experiments and are described in detail. Two flights in a stable boundary-layer and a close comparison to a measurement tower and a Sodar system depict the accuracy of the wind speed and direction measurements, as well as the turbulence measurements. Mean values, variances, covariance, turbulent kinetic energy and the integral length scale agree well with measurements from a meteorological measurement tower. MASC-3 performs valuable measurements of stable boundary layers with high temporal resolution and supplements the measurements of meteorological towers and sodar systems.
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Barbieri L, Kral ST, Bailey SCC, Frazier AE, Jacob JD, Reuder J, Brus D, Chilson PB, Crick C, Detweiler C, Doddi A, Elston J, Foroutan H, González-Rocha J, Greene BR, Guzman MI, Houston AL, Islam A, Kemppinen O, Lawrence D, Pillar-Little EA, Ross SD, Sama MP, Schmale DG, Schuyler TJ, Shankar A, Smith SW, Waugh S, Dixon C, Borenstein S, de Boer G. Intercomparison of Small Unmanned Aircraft System (sUAS) Measurements for Atmospheric Science during the LAPSE-RATE Campaign. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19092179. [PMID: 31083477 PMCID: PMC6540006 DOI: 10.3390/s19092179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) are rapidly transforming atmospheric research. With the advancement of the development and application of these systems, improving knowledge of best practices for accurate measurement is critical for achieving scientific goals. We present results from an intercomparison of atmospheric measurement data from the Lower Atmospheric Process Studies at Elevation—a Remotely piloted Aircraft Team Experiment (LAPSE-RATE) field campaign. We evaluate a total of 38 individual sUAS with 23 unique sensor and platform configurations using a meteorological tower for reference measurements. We assess precision, bias, and time response of sUAS measurements of temperature, humidity, pressure, wind speed, and wind direction. Most sUAS measurements show broad agreement with the reference, particularly temperature and wind speed, with mean value differences of 1.6 ±2.6∘C and 0.22 ±0.59 m/s for all sUAS, respectively. sUAS platform and sensor configurations were found to contribute significantly to measurement accuracy. Sensor configurations, which included proper aspiration and radiation shielding of sensors, were found to provide the most accurate thermodynamic measurements (temperature and relative humidity), whereas sonic anemometers on multirotor platforms provided the most accurate wind measurements (horizontal speed and direction). We contribute both a characterization and assessment of sUAS for measuring atmospheric parameters, and identify important challenges and opportunities for improving scientific measurements with sUAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Barbieri
- Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources and Gund Insitute for Environment, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05401, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-508-308-8706
| | - Stephan T. Kral
- Geophysical Institute and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, University of Bergen, Postbox 7803, 5020 Bergen, Norway; (S.T.K.); (J.R.)
| | - Sean C. C. Bailey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; (S.C.C.B.); (S.W.S.)
| | - Amy E. Frazier
- School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA;
| | - Jamey D. Jacob
- Unmanned Systems Research Institute and School of Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
| | - Joachim Reuder
- Geophysical Institute and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, University of Bergen, Postbox 7803, 5020 Bergen, Norway; (S.T.K.); (J.R.)
| | - David Brus
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Erik Palménin aukio 1, P.O. Box 503, FIN-00100 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Phillip B. Chilson
- School of Meteorology, Advanced Radar Research Center, and Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73071, USA; (P.B.C.); (B.R.G.); (E.A.P.-L.)
| | - Christopher Crick
- Department of Computer Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
| | - Carrick Detweiler
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA; (C.D.); (A.S.)
| | - Abhiram Doddi
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; (A.D.); (D.L.)
| | - Jack Elston
- Black Swift Technologies, Boulder, CO 80301, USA;
| | - Hosein Foroutan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA;
| | - Javier González-Rocha
- Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA;
| | - Brian R. Greene
- School of Meteorology, Advanced Radar Research Center, and Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73071, USA; (P.B.C.); (B.R.G.); (E.A.P.-L.)
| | - Marcelo I. Guzman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; (M.I.G.); (T.J.S.)
| | - Adam L. Houston
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Bessey Hall 126, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA;
| | - Ashraful Islam
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA;
| | - Osku Kemppinen
- Department of Physics, Kansas State University, 1228 N. 17th St., Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - Dale Lawrence
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; (A.D.); (D.L.)
| | - Elizabeth A. Pillar-Little
- School of Meteorology, Advanced Radar Research Center, and Center for Autonomous Sensing and Sampling, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73071, USA; (P.B.C.); (B.R.G.); (E.A.P.-L.)
| | - Shane D. Ross
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA;
| | - Michael P. Sama
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA;
| | - David G. Schmale
- School of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA;
| | - Travis J. Schuyler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; (M.I.G.); (T.J.S.)
| | - Ajay Shankar
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA; (C.D.); (A.S.)
| | - Suzanne W. Smith
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; (S.C.C.B.); (S.W.S.)
| | - Sean Waugh
- NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory, 120 David L. Boren Blvd., Norman, OK 73072, USA;
| | - Cory Dixon
- Integrated Remote and In Situ Sensing Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; (C.D.); (S.B.)
| | - Steve Borenstein
- Integrated Remote and In Situ Sensing Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; (C.D.); (S.B.)
| | - Gijs de Boer
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA;
- NOAA Physical Sciences Division, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
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Environmental and Sensor Integration Influences on Temperature Measurements by Rotary-Wing Unmanned Aircraft Systems. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19061470. [PMID: 30917522 PMCID: PMC6471934 DOI: 10.3390/s19061470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Obtaining thermodynamic measurements using rotary-wing unmanned aircraft systems (rwUAS) requires several considerations for mitigating biases from the aircraft and its environment. In this study, we focus on how the method of temperature sensor integration can impact the quality of its measurements. To minimize non-environmental heat sources and prevent any contamination coming from the rwUAS body, two configurations with different sensor placements are proposed for comparison. The first configuration consists of a custom quadcopter with temperature and humidity sensors placed below the propellers for aspiration. The second configuration incorporates the same quadcopter design with sensors instead shielded inside of an L-duct and aspirated by a ducted fan. Additionally, an autopilot algorithm was developed for these platforms to face them into the wind during flight for kinematic wind estimations. This study will utilize in situ rwUAS observations validated against tower-mounted reference instruments to examine how measurements are influenced both by the different configurations as well as the ambient environment. Results indicate that both methods of integration are valid but the below-propeller configuration is more susceptible to errors from solar radiation and heat from the body of the rwUAS.
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Calibration Procedure and Accuracy of Wind and Turbulence Measurements with Five-Hole Probes on Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aircraft in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer and Wind Turbine Wakes. ATMOSPHERE 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos10030124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
For research in the atmospheric boundary layer and in the vicinity of wind turbines, the turbulent 3D wind vector can be measured from fixed-wing unmanned aerial systems (UAS) with a five-hole probe and an inertial navigation system. Since non-zero vertical wind and varying horizontal wind causes variations in the airspeed of the UAS, and since it is desirable to sample with a flexible cruising airspeed to match a broad range of operational requirements, the influence of airspeed variations on mean values and turbulence statistics is investigated. Three calibrations of the five-hole probe at three different airspeeds are applied to the data of three flight experiments. Mean values and statistical moments of second order, calculated from horizontal straight level flights are compared between flights in a stably stratified polar boundary layer and flights over complex terrain in high turbulence. Mean values are robust against airspeed variations, but the turbulent kinetic energy, variances and especially covariances, and the integral length scale are strongly influenced. Furthermore, a transect through the wake of a wind turbine and a tip vortex is analyzed, showing the instantaneous influence of the intense variations of the airspeed on the measurement of the turbulent 3D wind vector. For turbulence statistics, flux calculations, and quantitative analysis of turbine wake characteristics, an independent measurement of the true airspeed with a pitot tube and the interpolation of calibration polynomials at different Reynolds numbers of the probe’s tip onto the Reynolds number during the measurement, reducing the uncertainty significantly.
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12
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OVLI-TA: An Unmanned Aerial System for Measuring Profiles and Turbulence in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19030581. [PMID: 30704090 PMCID: PMC6386983 DOI: 10.3390/s19030581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, we developed a small, unmanned aerial system (UAS) called OVLI-TA (Objet Volant Leger Instrumenté⁻Turbulence Atmosphérique) dedicated to atmospheric boundary layer research, in Toulouse (France). The device has a wingspan of 2.60 m and weighed 3.5 kg, including payload. It was essentially developed to investigate turbulence in a way complementary to other existing measurement systems, such as instrumented towers/masts. OVLI-TA's instrumental package includes a 5-hole probe on the nose of the airplane to measure attack and sideslip angles, a Pitot probe to measure static pressure, a fast inertial measurement unit, a GPS receiver, as well as temperature and moisture sensors in specific housings. In addition, the Pixhawk autopilot is used for autonomous flights. OVLI-TA is capable of profiling wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and humidity up to 1 km altitude, in addition to measuring turbulence. After wind tunnel calibrations, flight tests were conducted in March 2016 in Lannemezan (France), where there is a 60-m tower equipped with turbulence sensors. In July 2016, OVLI-TA participated in the international project DACCIWA (Dynamics-Aerosol-Chemistry-Clouds Interactions in West Africa), in Benin. Comparisons of the OVLI-TA observations with both the 60 m tower measurements and the radiosonde profiles showed good agreement for the mean values of wind, temperature, humidity, and turbulence parameters. Moreover, it validated the capacity of the drone to sample wind fluctuations up to a frequency of around 10 Hz, which corresponds to a spatial resolution of the order of 1 m.
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Abstract
One of the biggest challenges in probing the atmospheric boundary layer with small unmanned aerial vehicles is the turbulent 3D wind vector measurement. Several approaches have been developed to estimate the wind vector without using multi-hole flow probes. This study compares commonly used wind speed and direction estimation algorithms with the direct 3D wind vector measurement using multi-hole probes. This was done using the data of a fully equipped system and by applying several algorithms to the same data set. To cover as many aspects as possible, a wide range of meteorological conditions and common flight patterns were considered in this comparison. The results from the five-hole probe measurements were compared to the pitot tube algorithm, which only requires a pitot-static tube and a standard inertial navigation system measuring aircraft attitude (Euler angles), while the position is measured with global navigation satellite systems. Even less complex is the so-called no-flow-sensor algorithm, which only requires a global navigation satellite system to estimate wind speed and wind direction. These algorithms require temporal averaging. Two averaging periods were applied in order to see the influence and show the limitations of each algorithm. For a window of 4 min, both simplifications work well, especially with the pitot-static tube measurement. When reducing the averaging period to 1 min and thereby increasing the temporal resolution, it becomes evident that only circular flight patterns with full racetracks inside the averaging window are applicable for the no-flow-sensor algorithm and that the additional flow information from the pitot-static tube improves precision significantly.
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14
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Application of Different Turbulence Models Simulating Wind Flow in Complex Terrain: A Case Study for the WindForS Test Site. COMPUTATION 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/computation6030043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A model for the simulation of wind flow in complex terrain is presented based on the Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations. For the description of turbulence, the standard k-ε, the renormalization group (RNG) k-ε, and a Reynolds stress turbulence model are applied. Additional terms are implemented in the momentum equations to describe stratification of the Earth’s atmosphere and to account for the Coriolis forces driven by the Earth’s rotation, as well as for the drag force due to forested canopy. Furthermore, turbulence production and dissipation terms are added to the turbulence equations for the two-equation, as well as for the Reynolds stress models, in order to capture different types of land use. The approaches for the turbulence models are verified by means of a homogeneous canopy test case with flat terrain and constant forest height. The validation of the models is performed by investigating the WindForS wind test site. The simulation results are compared with five-hole probe velocity measurements using multipurpose airborne sensor carrier (MASC) systems (unmanned small research aircraft)—UAV at different locations for the main wind regime. Additionally, Reynolds stresses measured with sonic anemometers at a meteorological wind mast at different heights are compared with simulation results using the Reynolds stress turbulence model.
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15
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Innovative Strategies for Observations in the Arctic Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ISOBAR)—The Hailuoto 2017 Campaign. ATMOSPHERE 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos9070268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the research project “Innovative Strategies for Observations in the Arctic Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ISOBAR)” is to substantially increase the understanding of the stable atmospheric boundary layer (SBL) through a combination of well-established and innovative observation methods as well as by models of different complexity. During three weeks in February 2017, a first field campaign was carried out over the sea ice of the Bothnian Bay in the vicinity of the Finnish island of Hailuoto. Observations were based on ground-based eddy-covariance (EC), automatic weather stations (AWS) and remote-sensing instrumentation as well as more than 150 flight missions by several different Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) during mostly stable and very stable boundary layer conditions. The structure of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and above could be resolved at a very high vertical resolution, especially close to the ground, by combining surface-based measurements with UAV observations, i.e., multicopter and fixed-wing profiles up to 200 m agl and 1800 m agl, respectively. Repeated multicopter profiles provided detailed information on the evolution of the SBL, in addition to the continuous SODAR and LIDAR wind measurements. The paper describes the campaign and the potential of the collected data set for future SBL research and focuses on both the UAV operations and the benefits of complementing established measurement methods by UAV measurements to enable SBL observations at an unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution.
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16
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Using a Virtual Lidar Approach to Assess the Accuracy of the Volumetric Reconstruction of a Wind Turbine Wake. REMOTE SENSING 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/rs10050721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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17
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Platis A, Siedersleben SK, Bange J, Lampert A, Bärfuss K, Hankers R, Cañadillas B, Foreman R, Schulz-Stellenfleth J, Djath B, Neumann T, Emeis S. First in situ evidence of wakes in the far field behind offshore wind farms. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2163. [PMID: 29391440 PMCID: PMC5794966 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20389-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
More than 12 GW of offshore wind turbines are currently in operation in European waters. To optimise the use of the marine areas, wind farms are typically clustered in units of several hundred turbines. Understanding wakes of wind farms, which is the region of momentum and energy deficit downwind, is important for optimising the wind farm layouts and operation to minimize costs. While in most weather situations (unstable atmospheric stratification), the wakes of wind turbines are only a local effect within the wind farm, satellite imagery reveals wind-farm wakes to be several tens of kilometres in length under certain conditions (stable atmospheric stratification), which is also predicted by numerical models. The first direct in situ measurements of the existence and shape of large wind farm wakes by a specially equipped research aircraft in 2016 and 2017 confirm wake lengths of more than tens of kilometres under stable atmospheric conditions, with maximum wind speed deficits of 40%, and enhanced turbulence. These measurements were the first step in a large research project to describe and understand the physics of large offshore wakes using direct measurements, together with the assessment of satellite imagery and models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Platis
- University of Tuebingen, ZAG, Environmental Physics, 72074, Tuebingen, Germany.
| | - Simon K Siedersleben
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research (IMK-IFU), 82467, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
| | - Jens Bange
- University of Tuebingen, ZAG, Environmental Physics, 72074, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Astrid Lampert
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Flight Guidance, 38108, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Konrad Bärfuss
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Flight Guidance, 38108, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Rudolf Hankers
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Flight Guidance, 38108, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - Richard Foreman
- UL DEWI - UL International GmbH, 26382, Wilhelmshaven, Germany
| | | | - Bughsin Djath
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), Institute of Coastal Research, 21502, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Thomas Neumann
- UL DEWI - UL International GmbH, 26382, Wilhelmshaven, Germany
| | - Stefan Emeis
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research (IMK-IFU), 82467, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
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18
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New Setup of the UAS ALADINA for Measuring Boundary Layer Properties, Atmospheric Particles and Solar Radiation. ATMOSPHERE 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos9010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The unmanned research aircraft ALADINA (Application of Light-weight Aircraft for Detecting in situ Aerosols) has been established as an important tool for boundary layer research. For simplified integration of additional sensor payload, a flexible and reliable data acquisition system was developed at the Institute of Flight Guidance, Technische Universität (TU) Braunschweig. The instrumentation consists of sensors for temperature, humidity, three-dimensional wind vector, position, black carbon, irradiance and atmospheric particles in the diameter range of ultra-fine particles up to the accumulation mode. The modular concept allows for straightforward integration and exchange of sensors. So far, more than 200 measurement flights have been performed with the robustly-engineered system ALADINA at different locations. The obtained datasets are unique in the field of atmospheric boundary layer research. In this study, a new data processing method for deriving parameters with fast resolution and to provide reliable accuracies is presented. Based on tests in the field and in the laboratory, the limitations and verifiability of integrated sensors are discussed.
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