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Rohrbacher M, Hasselhorn HM. The contribution of work and health-related lifestyle to educational inequalities in physical health among older workers in Germany. A causal mediation analysis with data from the lidA cohort study. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285319. [PMID: 37556415 PMCID: PMC10411755 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of the study was to investigate the contribution of work factors and health-related lifestyle to educational inequalities in physical health among older workers in Germany by applying causal mediation analysis with longitudinal data. METHODS Data from the German lidA study was used. 2653 persons (53% female, 47% male) aged 46 (born 1965) and 52 (born 1959) at baseline were followed up for seven years with exposure and outcome assessments in 2011 (t0), 2014 (t1) and 2018 (t2). The total effect of education on physical health was decomposed into a natural direct effect (NDE) and a natural indirect effect (NIE) by using a sex-stratified causal mediation analysis with an inverse odds weighting approach. Baseline health, partner status and working hours were entered as a first set of mediators preceding the putative mediators of interest. All analyses were adjusted for age and migrant status. RESULTS Independent of the first set of mediators, work factors explained 21% of educational inequalities in physical health between low and high educated women and 0% comparing moderate versus high educated women. The addition of health behaviors explained further 26% (low vs. high education) and 20% (moderate vs. high education), respectively. Among men, net of the first set of mediators, work factors explained 5% of educational inequalities in physical health between low and high educated and 6% comparing moderate versus high educated persons. Additional 24% (low vs. high education) and 27% (moderate vs. high education) were explained by adding health behaviors to the models. CONCLUSIONS To reduce educational inequalities in physical health among older workers in Germany, interventions to promote healthy behaviors are promising. Improving working conditions is likely an important prerequisite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Rohrbacher
- Department of Occupational Health Science, School of Mechanical Engineering and Safety Engineering, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Hans Martin Hasselhorn
- Department of Occupational Health Science, School of Mechanical Engineering and Safety Engineering, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
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Sperlich S, Beller J, Epping J, Geyer S, Tetzlaff J. Trends of healthy and unhealthy working life expectancy in Germany between 2001 and 2020 at ages 50 and 60: a question of educational level? J Epidemiol Community Health 2023; 77:430-439. [PMID: 37193584 PMCID: PMC10314014 DOI: 10.1136/jech-2023-220345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extending the number of active working years is an important goal both for maintaining individual quality of life and safeguarding social security systems. Against this background, we examined the development of healthy and unhealthy working life expectancy (HWLE/UHWLE) in the general population and for different educational groups. METHODS The study is based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel study, including 88 966 women and 85 585 men aged 50-64 years and covering four time periods (2001-05, 2006-2010, 2011-2015 and 2016-2020). Estimates of HWLE and UHWLE in terms of self-rated health (SRH) were calculated using the Sullivan's method. We adjusted for hours worked and stratified by gender and educational level. RESULTS Working-hours adjusted HWLE at age 50 increased in women and men from 4.52 years (95% CI 4.42 to 4.62) in 2001-2005 to 6.88 years (95% CI 6.78 to 6.98) in 2016-2020 and from 7.54 years (95% CI 7.43 to 7.65) to 9.36 years (95% CI 9.25 to 9.46), respectively. Moreover, UHWLE also rose with the proportion of working life spent in good SRH (health ratio) remaining largely stable. At age 50, educational differences in HWLE between the lowest and highest educational groups increased over time in women and in men from 3.72 to 4.99 years and from 4.06 to 4.40 years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS We found evidence for an overall increase but also for substantial educational differences in working-hours adjusted HWLE, which widened between the lowest and highest educational group over time. Our findings suggest that policies and health prevention measures at workplace should be more focused on workers with low levels of education in order to extend their HWLE.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Johannes Beller
- Medical Sociology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jelena Epping
- Medical Sociology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Siegfried Geyer
- Medical Sociology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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von Bonsdorff MB, Munukka M, van Schoor NM, von Bonsdorff ME, Kortelainen L, Deeg DJH, de Breij S. Changes in physical performance according to job demands across three cohorts of older workers in the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. Eur J Ageing 2023; 20:21. [PMID: 37286634 DOI: 10.1007/s10433-023-00768-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This study set out to evaluate the association between job demands at baseline and physical performance over a six-year period across three cohorts of older Dutch workers examined 10 years apart. Data were drawn from three cohorts (1992-1999, 2002-2009 and 2012-2019) of the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. Individuals aged 55-65 years from each cohort who worked for pay were included (n = 274, n = 416, n = 618, respectively). Physical performance was measured using gait speed and chair stand performance. A population-based job exposure matrix was used to indicate levels of exposure probability of physical (use of force and repetitive movements) and psychosocial (cognitive demands and time pressure) job demands. We found that psychosocial job demands increased and physical demands decreased across the three cohorts. No between cohort differences were found for how job demands affected changes in physical performance over follow-up. For men, faster decline in gait speed was observed when comparing higher and lower use of force at baseline (β -0.012, 95% CI -0.021, -0.004). Greater use of force and repetitive movements were associated with faster decline in chair stand performance (β -0.012, 95% CI -0.020, -0.004 and β -0.009, 95% CI -0.017, -0.001, respectively). In women, no association of job demands on change in physical performance was observed. The study concluded that higher physical job demands were associated with stronger decline in physical performance across six years for men in all cohorts, while no associations were found among women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaela B von Bonsdorff
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences and Gerontology Research Center, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyvaskyla, Finland.
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Matti Munukka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Natasja M van Schoor
- Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam UMC, Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health, Aging and Later Life, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Lauri Kortelainen
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Health and Social Management, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Dorly J H Deeg
- Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam UMC, Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health, Aging and Later Life, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sascha de Breij
- Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam UMC, Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health, Aging and Later Life, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Eisenberg-Guyot J, Blaikie K, Andrea SB, Oddo V, Peckham T, Minh A, Owens S, Hajat A. A tutorial on a marginal structural modeling approach to mediation analysis in occupational health research: Investigating education, employment quality, and mortality. Am J Ind Med 2023; 66:472-483. [PMID: 36938776 PMCID: PMC10164112 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.23471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
Life expectancy inequities between more- and less-educated groups have grown by 1 to 2 years over the last several decades in the United States. Simultaneously, employment conditions for many workers have deteriorated. Researchers hypothesize that these adverse conditions mediate educational inequities in mortality. However, methodological barriers have impeded research on the role of employment conditions and other hazards as mediating factors in health inequities. Indeed, traditional mediation analysis methods are often biased in occupational health settings, including in those with exposure-mediator interactions and mediator-outcome confounders that are caused by exposure. In this paper, we outline-and provide code for-a marginal structural modeling (MSM) approach for estimating total effects and controlled direct effects originally proposed elsewhere, which can be applied to common mediation analysis settings in occupational health research. As an example, we apply our approach to assess the extent to which disparities in employment quality (EQ)-a multidimensional construct characterizing the terms and conditions of the worker-employer relationship-explained educational inequities in mortality in a 1999-2015 US Panel Study of Income Dynamics sample of workers with mortality follow-up through 2017. Under certain strong assumptions described in the text, our estimates suggest that over 70% of the educational inequity in mortality would have been eliminated if EQ had been at the 80th percentile (100th = best) across exposure groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerzy Eisenberg-Guyot
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kieran Blaikie
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sarah B. Andrea
- School of Public Health, Oregon Health & Science University-Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Vanessa Oddo
- Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition, College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Trevor Peckham
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Services, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Anita Minh
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, CA
| | - Shanise Owens
- Department of Health Systems and Population Health, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Anjum Hajat
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Müller B, Gaul C, Reis O, Jürgens TP, Kropp P, Ruscheweyh R, Straube A, Brähler E, Förderreuther S, Schroth J, Dresler T. Headache impact and socioeconomic status: findings from a study of the German Migraine and Headache Society (DMKG). J Headache Pain 2023; 24:37. [PMID: 37016306 PMCID: PMC10071716 DOI: 10.1186/s10194-023-01564-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGOUND Headache disorders are not only among the most prevalent, they are also among the most disabling disorders worldwide. This paper investigates the association between headache impact on daily life and the socioeconomic status (SES) of headache sufferers. METHODS Data stem from a random general population sample in Germany. Respondents who reported having headache for at least a year and were aged ≥ 18 years were included in the study. A standardized questionnaire addressing headache and headache treatment was filled in during the face-to-face survey. The impact of headache on daily life was measured using the German version of the Headache Impact Test (HIT-6). RESULTS Higher headache impact was found in low and medium SES compared to high SES. After adjustment for sociodemographics, headache-related factors (analgesic use, headache duration, headache frequency, migraine diagnosis), depressive symptoms, physical inactivity and obesity, an increased odds ratio of having higher headache impact in low SES compared to high SES was found: OR = 1.83, 95% CI [1.43, 2.23], p = .014. When the interactions "SES*obesity", "SES*depressive symptoms", and "SES*physical inactivity" were added, the results showed a significant interaction effect of "SES*obesity". Obese persons with low SES were 3.64 times more likely to have higher headache impact than non-obese persons with low SES. No significant differences between obese and non-obese persons were found in the medium and high SES groups. CONCLUSIONS SES is an important factor that should not be neglected in headache awareness campaigns and headache treatment. Longitudinal studies are needed in the future to investigate whether lifestyle interventions, such as weight reduction, can help to reduce headache impact in people in lower SES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta Müller
- Institute of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, University Medical Center Rostock, Gehlsheimer Str. 20, 18147, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Charly Gaul
- Headache Center Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Olaf Reis
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Neurology, University Medical Center Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Tim P Jürgens
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Peter Kropp
- Institute of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, University Medical Center Rostock, Gehlsheimer Str. 20, 18147, Rostock, Germany
| | - Ruth Ruscheweyh
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Straube
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Elmar Brähler
- Integrated Research and Treatment Center (IFB) Adiposity Diseases - Behavioral Medicine, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University of Leipzig Medical Center, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefanie Förderreuther
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jennifer Schroth
- Clinic for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic Medicine, Brandenburg Medical School, University Hospital Ruppin-Brandenburg, Neuruppin, Germany
| | - Thomas Dresler
- Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health, University Hospital Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Rohrbacher M, Hasselhorn HM. Social inequalities in early exit from employment in Germany: a causal mediation analysis on the role of work, health, and work ability. Scand J Work Environ Health 2022; 48:569-578. [PMID: 35708627 PMCID: PMC10539108 DOI: 10.5271/sjweh.4043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of work factors, health, and work ability to social inequalities in early exit from employment among older employees in Germany. METHODS Longitudinal data from the representative German lidA Cohort study was linked with employment register data to obtain maximum information on exit routes out of paid employment. Information of N=2438 respondents, aged 46 and 52 at baseline, were obtained for a follow-up of six years (2011-2017). Causal mediation analysis with inverse odds weighting was conducted using discrete-time survival outcomes and baseline measurements of the socioeconomic status (SES: education), work factors, health, and work ability. RESULTS Older employees with low SES were at an increased risk of exiting employment early by receiving disability pension and through long-term unemployment but not through an unspecified labor market exit when compared to those with high and moderate SES. Low work ability accounted for up to 38% of the social inequalities in work exits into disability pension. Less-than-good physical health accounted for up to 59% of inequalities in work exits into long-term unemployment. Work factors contributed considerably to inequalities in exits through unemployment but not disability pension. CONCLUSIONS This study finds social inequalities in early exits through disability pension and long-term unemployment among older employees in Germany, predominantly attributable to differences in work ability (disability pension) and physical health (unemployment). Investments in work ability and promotion of physical health may constitute promising approaches to counteract an increase of these inequalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Rohrbacher
- Department of Occupational Health Science, School of Mechanical Engineering and Safety Engineering, University of Wuppertal, Gaussstrasse 20, 42119 Wuppertal, Germany.
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Pförtner TK, Demirer I. How Working Conditions, Socioeconomic Insecurity, and Behavior-Related Factors Mediate the Association Between Working Poverty and Health in Germany. Int J Public Health 2022; 67:1604555. [PMID: 35645704 PMCID: PMC9130479 DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2022.1604555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Aims of this study were to Schmitt (Advances in Life Course Research, 2021, 47: 100402) analyze the association of working poverty with mental and physical health-related quality of life and (Wang and Ford, J Organ Behav, 2020, 41 (9): 895–914) to explain these associations by behavior-related factors (heavy drinking, smoking status, body mass index), socioeconomic insecurity (deprivation in living standards, economic worries), and mental working conditions (effort-reward imbalance, job insecurity). Methods: A total of 11,500 employees aged 17–67 from the German Socioeconomic Panel (2014, 2015, and 2016) were used, and mediation analyses with inverse odds weighting stratified by gender were conducted. Results: Working poverty was significantly associated with both outcomes for both genders. Deprivation in living standards contributed the most to differences in mental health, with a mediated proportion of 60.3% (men) and 44.4% (women). Differences in physical health were significantly mediated by inadequate living standards in women, with a mediated proportion of 73.7%, whereas none of the mediators considered were significant in men. Conclusion: Indicators of socioeconomic insecurity contributed most to the association of working poverty with mental and physical health. Results highlight the relevance of policy initiatives to strengthen the socioeconomic living conditions of the working poor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo-Kolja Pförtner
- Research Methods Division, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Institute of Medical Sociology, Health Services Research, and Rehabilitation Science, Medical Faculty and Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- *Correspondence: Timo-Kolja Pförtner,
| | - Ibrahim Demirer
- Institute of Medical Sociology, Health Services Research, and Rehabilitation Science, Medical Faculty and Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Deeg DJ, De Tavernier W, de Breij S. Occupation-Based Life Expectancy: Actuarial Fairness in Determining Statutory Retirement Age. FRONTIERS IN SOCIOLOGY 2021; 6:675618. [PMID: 34497844 PMCID: PMC8419329 DOI: 10.3389/fsoc.2021.675618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study examines occupation-based differences in life expectancy and the extent to which health accounts for these differences. Twentyseven-year survival follow-up data were used from the Dutch population-based Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (n = 2,531), initial ages 55-85 years. Occupation was based on longest-held job. Results show that the non-skilled general, technical and transport domains had an up to 3.5-year shorter life expectancy than the academic professions, accounting for the compositional characteristics age and gender. Statutory retirement age could be made to vary accordingly, by allowing a proportionally greater pension build-up in the shorter-lived domains. Health accounted for a substantial portion of the longevity difference, ranging from 20 to 66%, depending on the health indicator. Thus, health differences between occupational domains today can be used as a means to tailor retirement ages to individuals' risks of longevity. These data provide a proof of principle for the development of an actuarially fair method to determine statutory retirement ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorly J.H. Deeg
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wouter De Tavernier
- Centre for Comparative Welfare Studies, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Sascha de Breij
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Lallukka T, Shiri R, Pietiläinen O, Kausto J, Sumanen H, Halonen JI, Lahelma E, Rahkonen O, Mänty M, Kouvonen A. Timing of Entry into Paid Employment, Adverse Physical Work Exposures and Health: The Young Helsinki Health Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17217854. [PMID: 33120885 PMCID: PMC7662500 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17217854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
It is not well known how the timing of entry into paid employment and physical work exposures contribute to different health outcomes in young employees. Thus, we determined the associations of age at entry into paid employment and physical work exposures with general and mental health in young employees and determined whether associations differ by behavior-related risk factors. Data were collected via online and mailed surveys in autumn 2017 from employees of the City of Helsinki aged 18–39 years (n = 5897; 4630 women and 1267 men, response rate 51.5%). Surveys comprised measures of age at entry into paid employment, seven working conditions, behavior-related risk factors and health outcomes (self-rated health [SRH] and common mental disorders [CMD] as generic indicators of physical and mental health). Logistic regression analysis was used. After full adjustment, age at entry was not associated with the health outcomes; however, in additional analyses, younger age at first employment was associated with smoking and obesity (OR 3.00, 95% CI 2.34–3.85 and 1.67, 95% CI 1.32–2.11 for those started working at age of ≤18 years, respectively). Of the working conditions, sitting and standing were positively associated with poor SRH and CMD and uncomfortable working postures with CMD. Working conditions were broadly similarly associated with health outcomes among those with and without behavior-related risk factors. Although we found little support for modification by behavior-related risk factors, overweight, obesity and smoking were associated with poor SRH and binge drinking and smoking with CMD. Additionally, moderate and high levels of leisure-time physical activity were inversely associated with poor SRH. In conclusion, early entry into paid employment appears not to associate to immediate poorer health in young employees, although it was associated with smoking and obesity even after full adjustment. Exposure to physically heavy work and uncomfortable working postures may increase the risk of adverse health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tea Lallukka
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (O.P.); (H.S.); (E.L.); (O.R.); (M.M.)
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 18, 00032 Helsinki, Finland; (R.S.); (J.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +358-505-704-399
| | - Rahman Shiri
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 18, 00032 Helsinki, Finland; (R.S.); (J.K.)
| | - Olli Pietiläinen
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (O.P.); (H.S.); (E.L.); (O.R.); (M.M.)
| | - Johanna Kausto
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 18, 00032 Helsinki, Finland; (R.S.); (J.K.)
| | - Hilla Sumanen
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (O.P.); (H.S.); (E.L.); (O.R.); (M.M.)
- Department of Health Care and Emergency Care, South Eastern Finland University of Applied Sciences, 48220 Kotka, Finland
| | - Jaana I. Halonen
- Department of Health Security, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 30, 00271 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Eero Lahelma
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (O.P.); (H.S.); (E.L.); (O.R.); (M.M.)
| | - Ossi Rahkonen
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (O.P.); (H.S.); (E.L.); (O.R.); (M.M.)
| | - Minna Mänty
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (O.P.); (H.S.); (E.L.); (O.R.); (M.M.)
- Department of Strategy and Research, City of Vantaa, 01030 Vantaa, Finland
| | - Anne Kouvonen
- Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
- Research Institute of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, 53-238 Wroclaw, Poland
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