Oral administration of fermented wild ginseng ameliorates DSS-induced acute colitis by inhibiting NF-κB signaling and protects intestinal epithelial barrier

Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits porcine epidemic diarrhea virus replication through suppressing S1 protein mediated the MAPK/ERK pathway and reducing apoptosis

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) causes vomiting, dehydration, and diarrhea in piglets, seriously threatening their survival and development and causing huge economic losses to the global pig industry. Current PEDV control relies on vaccines, however, the high mutation rate of PEDV limits vaccine effectiveness, highlighting the need for new antiviral drugs. This study investigated the pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) on PEDV using network pharmacology, as well as GO and KEGG analyses, to predict its role in modulating the MAPK/ERK pathway. GRb1 downregulated the MAPK/ERK pathway activated by PEDV infection and reduced levels of the apoptotic protein cleaved-caspase-3, thus inhibiting PEDV-induced apoptosis and demonstrating antiviral properties. Further screening showed that the PEDV S1 protein promotes AP-1 nuclear entry and upregulates the MAPK/ERK pathway to induce apoptosis, a process reversed by GRb1. Further in vivo studies revealed that GRb1 treatment significantly reduced viral load in piglet intestinal tissues and anal swabs. GRb1 also alleviated clinical symptoms and intestinal damage in infected piglets, improving their survival rate while also downregulating the levels of inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α). This study is the first to demonstrate that GRb1 effectively inhibits PEDV, uncovering its potential mechanism of action and providing a promising new approach for antiviral treatment in veterinary medicine.

Ginseng as a therapeutic target to alleviate gut and brain diseases via microbiome regulation

The human gut, which contains a diverse microbiome, plays an important role in maintaining physiological balance and preserving the immune system. The complex interplay between the central nervous system (CNS) and the gut microbiome has gained significant attention due to its profound implications for overall health, particularly for gut and brain disorders. There is emerging evidence that the gut-brain axis (GBA) represents a bidirectional communication system between the CNS and the gastrointestinal tract and plays a pivotal role in regulating many aspects of human health. Ginseng has shown potential to ameliorate conditions associated with dysbiosis, such as gut and CNS disorders by restoring microbial balance and enhancing gut barrier function. This comprehensive review provides valuable insights into the potential of ginseng as a herbal modulator of GBA as a therapeutic intervention for preventing and treating gut and neurological diseases via microbiota regulation to ultimately enhance overall health. Furthermore, we emphasize the therapeutic benefits of ginseng, its ability to enhance beneficial probiotics, such as Firmicutes, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Akkermansia while reducing pathogenic bacteria prevalence, such as Helicobacter, Clostridium, and Proteobacteria. Although the connection between ginseng regulation of microbial communities in response to the gut and neuropsychiatric disorders is lacking, additional investigations are warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, optimize dosages, and explore the clinical relevance of ginseng in promoting GBA balance and ultimately overall health.

Oxidative Stress in Poultry and the Therapeutic Role of Herbal Medicine in Intestinal Health

The intensive broiler farming model has accelerated the development of the poultry farming industry. However, it has also inevitably brought about many stressors that lead to oxidative stress in the organism. The intestine is the leading site of nutrient digestion, absorption, and metabolism, as well as a secretory and immune organ. Oxidative stress in animal production can harm the intestine, potentially leading to significant losses for the farming industry. Under conditions of oxidative stress, many free radicals are produced in the animal's body, attacking the intestinal mucosal tissues and destroying the barrier integrity of the intestinal tract, leading to disease. Recently, herbs have been shown to have a favorable safety profile and promising application in improving intestinal oxidative stress in poultry. Therefore, future in-depth studies on the specific mechanisms of herbs and their extracts for treating intestinal oxidative stress can provide a theoretical basis for the clinical application of herbs and new therapeutic options for intestinal oxidative stress injury during poultry farming. This review focuses on the causes and hazards of oxidative stress in the intestinal tract of poultry, and on herbs and their extracts with therapeutic potential, to provide a reference for developing and applying new antioxidants.

Ginsenoside Rb1 alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in human dental pulp cells via the PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, and MAPK signalling pathways

AIM

Among numerous constituents of Panax ginseng, a constituent named Ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1) has been studied to diminish inflammation associated with diseases. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of G-Rb1 on human dental pulp cells (hDPCs) exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and aimed to determine the underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODOLOGY

The KEGG pathway analysis was performed after RNA sequencing in G-Rb1- and LPS-treated hDPCs. Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot analysis were used for the assessment of cell adhesion molecules and inflammatory cytokines. Statistical analysis was performed with one-way ANOVA and the Student-Newman-Keuls test.

RESULTS

G-Rb1 did not exhibit any cytotoxicity within the range of concentrations tested. However, it affected the levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8, as these showed reduced levels with exposure to LPS. Additionally, less mRNA and protein expressions of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were shown. With the presence of G-Rb1, decreased levels of PI3K/Akt, phosphorylated IκBα and p65 were also observed. Furthermore, phosphorylated ERK and JNK by LPS were diminished within 15, 30 and 60 min of G-Rb1 exposure; however, the expression of non-phosphorylated ERK and JNK remained unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

G-Rb1 suppressed the LPS-induced increase of cell adhesion molecules and inflammatory cytokines, while also inhibiting PI3K/Akt, phosphorylation of NF-κB transcription factors, ERK and JNK of MAPK signalling in hDPCs.

Pharmacological effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on intestinal inflammation and the immune system

Intestinal inflammatory imbalance and immune dysfunction may lead to a spectrum of intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and gastrointestinal tumors. As the king of herbs, ginseng has exerted a wide range of pharmacological effects in various diseases. Especially, it has been shown that ginseng and ginsenosides have strong immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory abilities in intestinal system. In this review, we summarized how ginseng and various extracts influence intestinal inflammation and immune function, including regulating the immune balance, modulating the expression of inflammatory mediators and cytokines, promoting intestinal mucosal wound healing, preventing colitis-associated colorectal cancer, recovering gut microbiota and metabolism imbalance, alleviating antibiotic-induced diarrhea, and relieving the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. In addition, the specific experimental methods and key control mechanisms are also briefly described.

Ginsenoside Rc from Panax Ginseng Ameliorates Palmitate-Induced UB/OC-2 Cochlear Cell Injury

By 2050, at least 700 million people will require hearing therapy while 2.5 billion are projected to suffer from hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) arises from the inability of the inner ear to convert fluid waves into neural electric signals because of injury to cochlear hair cells that has resulted in their death. In addition, systemic chronic inflammation implicated in other pathologies may exacerbate cell death leading to SNHL. Phytochemicals have emerged as a possible solution because of the growing evidence of their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties. Ginseng and its bioactive molecules, ginsenosides, exhibit effects that suppress pro-inflammatory signaling and protect against apoptosis. In the current study, we investigated the effects of ginsenoside Rc (G-Rc) on UB/OC-2 primary murine sensory hair cell survival in response to palmitate-induced injury. G-Rc promoted UB/OC-2 cell survival and cell cycle progression. Additionally, G-Rc enhanced the differentiation of UB/OC-2 cells into functional sensory hair cells and alleviated palmitate-induced inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and apoptosis. The current study offers novel insights into the effects of G-Rc as a potential adjuvant for SNHL and warrants further studies elucidating the molecular mechanisms.

Inflammasome-targeting natural compounds in inflammatory bowel disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), mainly including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, seriously affects human health and causes substantial social and economic burden. The pathogenesis of IBD is still not fully elucidated, whereas recent studies have demonstrated that its development is associated with the dysfunction of intestinal immune system. Accumulating evidence have proven that inflammasomes such as NLRP3 and NLRP6 play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of IBD. Thus, regulating the activation of inflammasomes have been considered to be a promising strategy in IBD treatment. A number of recent studies have provided evidence that blocking inflammasome related cytokine IL-1β can benefit a group of IBD patients with overactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome. However, therapies for targeting inflammasomes with high efficacy and safety are rare. Traditional medical practice provides numerous medical compounds that may have a role in treatment of various human diseases including IBD. Recent studies demonstrated that numerous medicinal herb derived compounds can efficiently prevent colon inflammation in animal models by targeting inflammasomes. Herein, we summarize the main findings of these studies focusing on the effects of traditional medicine derived compounds on colitis treatment and the underlying mechanisms in regulating the inflammasomes. On this basis, we provide a perspective for future studies regarding strategies to improve the efficacy, specificity and safety of available herbal compounds, and to discover new compounds using the emerging new technologies, which will improve our understanding about the roles and mechanisms of herbal compounds in the regulation of inflammasomes and treatment of IBD.

Protective effect of 17S‑epoxy‑docosapentaenoic acid against dextran sulfate sodium induced ulcerative colitis in BALB/c mice

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is difficult to eradicate as it leads to chronic inflammation in the digestive tract due to immune system malfunction. The present study demonstrated the protective effect of 7S,15R-dihydroxy-16S,17S-epoxy-docosapentaenoic acid (diHEP-DPA), which had been previously synthesized, on a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced BALB/c mouse model of UC. UC was induced with 4% DSS drinking water for 7 days. Initially, the anti-inflammatory effect of diHEP-DPA was confirmed by demonstrating that lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP1 cells treated with diHEP-DPA decreased IL-6, TNF-α and nitrite levels by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and Griess reagent kit. The results indicated that the administration of diHEP-DPA at 20 µg/kg significantly reduced the severity of colitis, as determined by hematoxylin and eosin staining. The levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in the colon tissue and serum were significantly reduced in the diHEP-DPA + DSS-treated group compared with in the control group, as determined by FACS and ELISA kit. It was also observed that diHEP-DPA decreased myeloperoxidase (MPO) and nitrite levels in the colon tissues of diHEP-DPA + DSS-treated mice, as indicated using commercial MPO and nitric oxide kits. The diHEP-DPA+DSS-treated mice also exhibited decreased expression levels of phosporylated (p)-inhibitor κB protein, p-p65 and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the colon tissue by inhibiting inflammation, which were measured by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and weatern blot analysis. Overall, the present study demonstrated the protective effect of diHEP-DPA against a severe colitis condition in vivo.

The Untapped Potential of Ginsenosides and American Ginseng Berry in Promoting Mental Health via the Gut-Brain Axis

Despite the popularity of the ginseng (Panax) root in health research and on the market, the ginseng berry’s potential remains relatively unexplored. Implementing ginseng berry cultivations and designing berry-derived products could improve the accessibility to mental health-promoting nutraceuticals. Indeed, the berry could have a higher concentration of neuroprotective and antidepressant compounds than the root, which has already been the subject of research demonstrating its efficacy in the context of neuroprotection and mental health. In this review, data on the berry’s application in supporting mental health via the gut–brain axis is compiled and discussed.

In Vitro Evaluation of Anti-Lung Cancer and Anti-COVID-19 Effects using Fermented Black Color Ginseng Extract

Ginseng is known as the “king” of herbal plants and has been used widely in Asia for centuries. Ginseng contains active saponins, including protopanaxadiols, protopanaxatriols, and other compounds. There are many methods for processing ginseng, such as steaming, fermentation, expansion, and conversion of active compounds, which can improve its biological activity. In this study, we investigated the cytotoxic and oxidative effects of fermented black color ginseng (FBCG), black ginseng (BG), and white ginseng (WG) on a human lung carcinoma cell line (A549). Moreover, we found that treatment with FBCG induced oxidative stress in the A549 cell line and increases the apoptosis percentage; these effects were linked to the stimulation of the caspase 3/mitogen-activated protein kinase (caspase 3/MAPK) pathway. We also evaluated the anti-coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) effect of FBCG on a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected Vero E6 cell line. Our results suggest that FBCG not only inhibits the replication of this strain of virus in the cell but also reduces the number of viral RNA (vRNA) copies in the extracellular environment. Taken together, these data show that FBCG has both potential anti-lung cancer and anti-COVID-19 effects.

Korean red ginseng suppresses 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced inflammation in the substantia nigra and colon

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease involving dopaminergic neuronal death in the substantia nigra (SN); recent studies have shown that interactions between gut and brain play a critical role in the pathogenesis of PD. In this study, the anti-inflammatory effect of Korean red ginseng (KRG) and the changes in gut microbiota were evaluated in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD mouse model. Male nine-week-old C57BL/6 mice were injected intraperitoneally with 30 mg/kg of MPTP at 24-h intervals for 5 days. Two hours after the daily MPTP injection, the mice were orally administered 100 mg/kg of KRG, which continued for 7 days beyond the MPTP injections, for a total of 12 consecutive days. Eight days after the final KRG administration, the pole and rotarod tests were performed and brain and colon samples of the mice were collected. Dopaminergic neuronal death, activation of microglia and astrocytes, α-synuclein and expressions of inflammatory cytokines and disruption of tight junction were evaluated. In addition, 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing of mouse fecal samples was performed to investigate microbiome changes. KRG treatment prevented MPTP-induced behavioral impairment, dopaminergic neuronal death, activation of microglia and astrocytes in the nigrostriatal pathway, disruption of tight junction and the increase in α-synuclein, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α expression in the colon. The 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that MPTP altered the number of bacterial species and their relative abundances, which were partially suppressed by KRG treatment. Especially, KRG suppressed the abundance of the inflammation-related phylum Verrucomicrobia and genera Ruminococcus and Akkermansia (especially Akkermansia muciniphila), and elevated the abundance of Eubacterium, which produces the anti-inflammatory substances. These findings suggest that KRG prevents MPTP-induced dopaminergic neuronal death, activation of microglia and astrocytes, and accumulation of α-synuclein in the SN, and the regulation of inflammation-related factors in the colon may influence the effect.

Korean Red Ginseng Regulates Intestinal Tight Junction and Inflammation in the Colon of a Parkinson's Disease Mouse Model

Recent studies have determined that gastrointestinal function contributes to the control of Parkinson's disease (PD). Gastrointestinal dysfunction results in a leaky intestinal barrier, inducing inflammation in the gut. Korean red ginseng (KRG) is widely used for the treatment of numerous afflictions, including inflammation and neurodegenerative disease. We investigated changes in the intestinal tight junctions and proinflammatory cytokines in the colon, and alpha-synuclein (aSyn) in the colon and the substantia nigra (SN) of a PD mouse model. Eight-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally administered 30 mg/kg of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) once a day for 5 days, and orally given 100 mg/kg of KRG for 12 consecutive days. Alterations in the levels of occludin, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) in the colon, and the expressions of aSyn and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the colon and the SN were evaluated. Oral administration of KRG significantly prevents the MPTP-induced motor dysfunction, and suppresses the MPTP-induced disruption of occludin and ZO-1, and suppresses the increase in TNF-α and IL-1β in the colon of mice. In addition, KRG prevents accumulation of aSyn and TH in the colon and the SN. These results suggest that KRG has the potential to prevent MPTP-induced leaky gut barrier, inflammation, and accumulation of aSyn.

Ginseng Extract Ameliorates the Negative Physiological Effects of Heat Stress by Supporting Heat Shock Response and Improving Intestinal Barrier Integrity: Evidence from Studies with Heat-Stressed Caco-2 Cells, C. elegans and Growing Broilers

Climatic changes and heat stress have become a great challenge in the livestock industry, negatively affecting, in particular, poultry feed intake and intestinal barrier malfunction. Recently, phytogenic feed additives were applied to reduce heat stress effects on animal farming. Here, we investigated the effects of ginseng extract using various in vitro and in vivo experiments. Quantitative real-time PCR, transepithelial electrical resistance measurements and survival assays under heat stress conditions were carried out in various model systems, including Caco-2 cells, Caenorhabditis elegans and jejunum samples of broilers. Under heat stress conditions, ginseng treatment lowered the expression of HSPA1A (Caco-2) and the heat shock protein genes hsp-1 and hsp-16.2 (both in C. elegans), while all three of the tested genes encoding tight junction proteins, CLDN3, OCLN and CLDN1 (Caco-2), were upregulated. In addition, we observed prolonged survival under heat stress in Caenorhabditis elegans, and a better performance of growing ginseng-fed broilers by the increased gene expression of selected heat shock and tight junction proteins. The presence of ginseng extract resulted in a reduced decrease in transepithelial resistance under heat shock conditions. Finally, LC-MS analysis was performed to quantitate the most prominent ginsenosides in the extract used for this study, being Re, Rg1, Rc, Rb2 and Rd. In conclusion, ginseng extract was found to be a suitable feed additive in animal nutrition to reduce the negative physiological effects caused by heat stress.

Panax ginseng: a candidate herbal medicine for autoimmune disease

Panax ginseng Meyer (P. ginseng; Korean ginseng) is well known for its medicinal properties. It can alleviate pathological symptoms, promote health, and prevent potential diseases via its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, homeostatic, and other positive effects on biological metabolism. Although many studies have determined effects of P. ginseng on various diseases, such as cardiovascular, neurological, and immunological diseases, little is known about the effect of P. ginseng on autoimmune diseases. Here, we review a few reports about effects of P. ginseng on autoimmune diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, atopic dermatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis) and suggest the possibility of P. ginseng as a candidate herbal medicine to prevent and treat autoimmune diseases as well as the need to study it.

Saponins regulate intestinal inflammation in colon cancer and IBD

The saponins are natural surface-active glycosides which are the principal components of many popular herbal medicinal plants such as ginseng, astragalus, and bupleurum. Recent studies have suggested that saponins can exert strong anti-inflammatory effects and induce immune homeostasis in many diseases. Intestinal-inflammation-related digestive diseases include inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury, necrotizing enterocolitis and radiation proctitis, as well as intestinal inflammation caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The pathogenesis of these diseases is poorly understood, and the patients with these diseases suffer from mental stress and physical pain, while their families (and society) experience heavy economic losses. Results from animal experiments suggest that saponins can suppress intestinal inflammation, promote intestinal barrier repair, maintain the diversity of the intestinal flora, and decrease the incidence rate of colon-inflammation-related colon cancer. In this review, we discuss new findings regarding the effects of saponins on intestinal inflammation and digestive diseases with intestinal inflammation. In addition, we provide a summary of the underlying mechanism for saponins-induced treatment on intestinal-inflammation-related disease.

Anti-Inflammation Effect of Small Molecule Oligopeptides Prepared from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer in Rats

The present study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of ginseng oligopeptides (GOPs). For the anti-inflammatory activity, dextran-induced paw edema and granuloma models were used in Sprague-Dawley rats (180–200 g, 12 weeks old, n = 10). Rats were treated orally with GOPs (0, 62.5, 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg) for prophylaxis. In the granuloma model, the levels of NO, Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin IL-β, and interleukin IL-10 in serum were evaluated. In addition, in the edema model, the level of TNF-α, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), Leukotriene D4 (LTD4), and the platelet activating factor (RAF) in paw tissue were detected. PCR assessed the effect of GOPs on the expression of MAPK and NF-κB. The results showed that oral administration of GOPs inhibited inflammation caused by cotton pellet and dextran. GOPs significantly inhibited the edema formation via MAPK and NF-κB. These findings suggested that GOPs have a beneficial effect on acute and chronic inflammation, and the mechanism possibly mediated by inhibiting gene expression involved in inflammation and downregulating inflammatory mediators.

Systems pharmacology reveals the unique mechanism features of Shenzhu Capsule for treatment of ulcerative colitis in comparison with synthetic drugs

In clinic, both synthetic drugs and Shenzhu Capsule (SZC), one kind of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), are used to treat ulcerative colitis (UC). In our study, a systems pharmacology approach was employed to elucidate the chemical and mechanism differences between SZC and synthetic drugs in treating UC. First, the compound databases were constructed for SZC and synthetic drugs. Then, the targets of SZC were predicted with on-line tools and validated using molecular docking method. Finally, chemical space, targets, and pathways of SZC and synthetic drugs were compared. Results showed that atractylenolide I, atractylone, kaempferol, etc., were bioactive compounds of SZC. Comparison of SZC and synthetic drugs showed that (1) in chemical space, the area of SZC encompasses the area of synthetic drugs; (2) SZC can act on more targets and pathways than synthetic drugs; (3) SZC can not only regulate immune and inflammatory reactions but also act on ulcerative colitis complications (bloody diarrhea) and prevent UC to develop into colorectal cancer whereas synthetic drugs mainly regulate immune and inflammatory reactions. Our study could help us to understand the compound and mechanism differences between TCM and synthetic drugs.

PD-1 deficiency protects experimental colitis via alteration of gut microbiota

Programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) is a coinhibitory molecule and plays a pivotal role in immune regulation. Here, we demonstrate a role for PD-1 in pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Wild-type (WT) mice had severe wasting disease during experimentally induced colitis, while mice deficient for PD-1 (PD-1^−/−) did not develop colon inflammation. Interestingly, PD-1^−/− mice cohoused with WT mice became susceptible to colitis, suggesting that resistance of PD-1^−/− mice to colitis is dependent on their gut microbiota. 16S rRNA gene-pyrosequencing analysis showed that PD-1^−/− mice had altered composition of gut microbiota with significant reduction in Rikenellaceae family. These altered colon bacteria of PD-1^−/− mice induced less amount of inflammatory mediators from colon epithelial cells, including interleukin (IL)-6, and inflammatory chemokines. Taken together, our study indicates that PD-1 expression is involved in the resistance to experimental colitis through altered bacterial communities of colon.

Momordica charantia Inhibits Inflammatory Responses in Murine Macrophages via Suppression of TAK1

Momordica charantia known as bitter melon is a representative medicinal plant reported to exhibit numerous pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antitumor, and hypoglycemic actions. Although this plant has high ethnopharmacological value for treating inflammatory diseases, the molecular mechanisms by which it inhibits the inflammatory response are not fully understood. In this study, we aim to identify the anti-inflammatory mechanism of this plant. To this end, we studied the effects of its methanol extract (Mc-ME) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. Specifically, we evaluated nitric oxide (NO) production, mRNA expression of inflammatory genes, luciferase reporter gene activity, and putative molecular targets. Mc-ME blocked NO production in a dose-dependent manner in RAW264.7 cells; importantly, no cytotoxicity was observed. Moreover, the mRNA expression levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 were decreased by Mc-ME treatment in a dose-dependent manner. Luciferase assays and nuclear lysate immunoblotting analyses strongly indicated that Mc-ME decreases the levels of p65 [a nuclear factor (NF)-[Formula: see text]B subunit] and c-Fos [an activator protein (AP)-1 subunit]. Whole lysate immunoblotting assays, luciferase assays, and overexpression experiments suggested that transforming growth factor [Formula: see text]-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is targeted by Mc-ME, thereby suppressing NF-[Formula: see text]B and AP-1 activity via downregulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and AKT. These results strongly suggest that Mc-ME exerts its anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the action of TAK1, which also affects the activation of NF-[Formula: see text]B and AP-1.

Beneficial Effects of Small Molecule Oligopeptides Isolated from Panax ginseng Meyer on Pancreatic Beta-Cell Dysfunction and Death in Diabetic Rats

To determine whether treatment with ginseng oligopeptides (GOPs) could modulate hyperglycemia related to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in rats induced by high-fat diet and low doses of alloxan, type 2 diabetes was induced in male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats by injecting them once with 105 mg/kg alloxan and feeding them high-carbohydrate/high-fat diet with or without GOP administration (0.125, 0.5, and 2.0 g/kg Body Weight) for 7, 24, and 52 weeks. Oral glucose test tolerance (OGTT), plasma glucose, serum insulin, level of antioxidant, and beta cell function were measured. Morphological observation and immunohistochemistry study of insulin of islets was performed by light microscopy. The insulin level and the expression of NF-κB and Bcl-2 family in pancreatic islets were also detected by Western blot analysis. In addition, survival time and survival rate were observed. After the treatment, the abnormal OGTT were partially reversed by GOPs treatment in diabetic rats. The efficacy of GOPs was manifested in the amelioration of pancreatic damage, as determined by microscopy analysis. Moreover, GOPs treatment increased the normal insulin content and decreased the expression of the NF-κB-signaling pathway. Compared with those in the control model, the survival time and rate were significantly longer. It is suggested that GOPs exhibit auxiliary therapeutic potential for diabetes.

Enhanced Rg3 negatively regulates Th1 cell responses

Background

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG; Panax ginseng Meyer) is a widely used medicinal herb known to exert various immune modulatory functions. KRG and one of its purified components, ginsenoside Rg3, are known to possess anti-inflammatory activities. How they impact helper T cell-mediated responses is not fully explored. In this study, we attempted to evaluate the effect of KRG extract (KRGE) and ginsenoside Rg3 on Th1 cell responses.

Methods

Using well-characterized T cell in vitro differentiation systems, we examined the effects of KRGE or enhanced Rg3 on the Th1-inducing cytokine production from dendritic cells (DC) and the naïve CD4⁺ T cells differentiation to Th1 cells. Furthermore, we examined the change of Th1 cell population in the intestine after treatment of enhanced Rg3. The influence of KRGE or enhanced Rg3 on Th1 cell differentiation was evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction.

Results

KRGE significantly inhibited the production level of IL-12 from DCs and subsequent Th1 cell differentiation. Similarly, enhanced Rg3 significantly suppressed the expression of interferon gamma (IFNγ) and T-bet in T cells under Th1-skewing condition. Consistent with these effects in vitro, oral administration of enhanced Rg3 suppressed the frequency of Th1 cells in the Peyer's patch and lamina propria cells in vivo.

Conclusion

Enhanced Rg3 negatively regulates the differentiation of Th1 cell in vitro and Th1 cell responses in the gut in vivo, providing fundamental basis for the use of this agent to treat Th1-related diseases.

Src/Syk-Targeted Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Triterpenoidal Saponins from Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis) Seeds

Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng (family Cucurbitaceae), also known as gac, or red melon, is an edible Southeast Asian fruit valued for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Specifically, Momordicae Semen, the seeds of the gac fruit, is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat boils, rheumatic pain, muscle spasm, hemorrhoids, and hemangiomas. In this study, a chemical investigation into a gac seed ethanol (EtOH) extract resulted in the identification of three triterpenoidal saponins (1-3), which were investigated for their anti-inflammatory effects. Among the saponins, momordica saponin I (compound 3) reduced the production of nitric oxide (NO) in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells without inducing cytotoxicity. The mRNA levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 were decreased by momordica saponin I. Additionally, the translocation of p65 and p50 (subunits of the transcription factor NF-[Formula: see text]B) into the nucleus was remarkably inhibited. Furthermore, the phosphorylation levels of inflammatory signaling proteins (I[Formula: see text]B[Formula: see text], Src, and Syk) known to be upstream regulatory molecules of p65 were decreased under momordica saponin I-treated conditions. The molecular targets of momordica saponin I were confirmed in overexpression experiments and through immunoblot analyses with Src and Syk. This study provides evidence that momordica saponin I could be beneficial in treating inflammatory diseases, and should be considered a bioactive immunomodulatory agent with anti-inflammatory properties.

Vitamin C enhances the expression of IL17 in a Jmjd2-dependent manner

Previously, we reported that vitamin C facilitates the CpG demethylation of Foxp3 enhancer in CD4＋Foxp3＋ regulatory T cells (Tregs) by enhancing the activity of a DNA demethylase ten-eleven-translocation (Tet). However, it is not clear whether vitamin C affects other helper T cell lineages like T helper type 17 (Th17) cells which are related with Tregs. Here, we show that the expression of interleukin-17A (IL17) increases with the treatment of vitamin C but not with other antioxidants. Interestingly, the upregulation of IL17 was not accompanied by DNA demethylation in Il17 promoter and was independent of Tet enzymes. Rather, vitamin C reduced the trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me3) in the regulatory elements of the Il17 locus, and the effects of vitamin C were abrogated by knockdown of jumonji-C domain-containing protein 2 (jmjd2). These results suggest that vitamin C can affect the expression of IL17 by modulating the histone demethylase activity. [BMB Reports 2017; 50(1): 49-54].

Cerbera manghas methanol extract exerts anti-inflammatory activity by targeting c-Jun N-terminal kinase in the AP-1 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cerbera manghas L. (Apocynaceae) is a medicinal plant traditionally used to ameliorate the clinical signs of inflammatory diseases and hypertension.

AIM OF STUDY

Although C. manghas L. has long been used as a traditional remedy for various diseases, the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms are poorly understood. A detailed investigation of these mechanisms is necessary to demonstrate the ethnopharmaceutical utility of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of C. manghas methanol extract (Cm-ME) on the production of inflammatory mediators and the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and identification of molecular targets were investigated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages in vitro. In addition, the inhibitory effects of Cm-ME orally administered were tested by LPS/D-galactosamine (D-GalN)-induced hepatitis and LPS-induced peritonitis mouse models in vivo.

RESULTS

Cm-ME downregulated the production of prostaglandin (PG)E₂ and the mRNA expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-1β in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells under non-toxic concentration of Cm-ME. This extract inhibited the nuclear translocation of c-Jun and p-ATF2, the phosphorylation of JNK and p38, and AP-1 activity. Western blot analysis and in vitro kinase assay confirmed that JNK is a direct pharmacological target of Cm-ME action. In addition, Cm-ME significantly ameliorated the clinical signs of LPS/D-GalN-induced hepatitis and lowered the production of nitric oxide (NO) and the phosphorylation of JNK in LPS-induced peritonitis conditions.

CONCLUSION

Cm-ME exerts anti-inflammatory actions on LPS-stimulated macrophages and in mouse models of acute inflammatory disease. These actions are predominantly mediated by targeting JNK in the AP-1 signaling pathway.

Suppression of TNF-α and free radicals reduces systematic inflammatory and metabolic disorders: Radioprotective effects of ginseng oligopeptides on intestinal barrier function and antioxidant defense

Irradiation therapy is markedly associated with intestinal injure and oxidant stress. This study aimed to investigate the effects of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) oligopeptides (GOP) on irradiation-induced intestinal injury and antioxidant defense in mice. BALB/c mice (8 weeks old) were randomly divided into six groups: vehicle control, irradiation control (IR), IR+whey protein [0.30 g/kg body weight (BW)], IR+GOP 0.15 g/kg BW, IR+GOP 0.30 g/kg BW and IR+GOP 0.60 g/kg BW. Postirradiation 30-day survival trial, white blood cells count and bone marrow hematopoietic system damage were performed to identify the injury degree induced by irradiation. Then, histopathology analysis was observed and intestinal permeability in vivo was quantified with fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to determine antioxidant ability, plasma inflammatory cytokines, diamine oxidase (DAO) and endotoxin (LPS) levels. The immunohistochemistry assay was used to analyze the expression levels of tight junction proteins. We found that GOP-treated mice exhibited lower concentrations of plasma LPS and DAO and decreased instructors of inflammatory and oxidative stress which were linked to the lower intestinal permeability and higher tight junction proteins expression. The blockage of GOP was linked with the reduction of TNF-α and free radicals. The 15-day pretreatment of GOP could exhibit radioprotective effects, and another 15-day posttreatment benefited the quick repair of irradiation-induced injury. We confirm that GOP would exhibit effective therapeutic value on attenuating irradiation-induced hematopoietic, gastrointestinal and oxidative injury in cancer patients.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of Korean Red Ginseng-derived components

Background

Although Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been traditionally used for a long time, its anti-inflammatory role and underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms have been poorly understood. In this study, the anti-inflammatory roles of KRG-derived components, namely, water extract (KRG-WE), saponin fraction (KRG-SF), and nonsaponin fraction (KRG-NSF), were investigated.

Methods

To check saponin levels in the test fractions, KRG-WE, KRG-NSF, and KRG-SF were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. The anti-inflammatory roles and underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of these components were investigated using a macrophage-like cell line (RAW264.7 cells) and an acute gastritis model in mice.

Results

Of the tested fractions, KGR-SF (but not KRG-NSF and KRG-WE) markedly inhibited the viability of RAW264.7 cells, and splenocytes at more than 500 μg/mL significantly suppressed NO production at 100 μg/mL, diminished mRNA expression of inflammatory genes such as inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-β at 200 μg/mL, and completely blocked phagocytic uptake by RAW264.7 cells. All three fractions suppressed luciferase activity triggered by interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), but not that triggered by activator protein-1 and nuclear factor-kappa B. Phospho-IRF3 and phospho-TBK1 were simultaneously decreased in KRG-SF. Interestingly, all these fractions, when orally administered, clearly ameliorated the symptoms of gastric ulcer in HCl/ethanol-induced gastritis mice.

Conclusion

These results suggest that KRG-WE, KRG-NSF, and KRG-SF might have anti-inflammatory properties, mostly because of the suppression of the IRF3 pathway.

Ascorbic acid ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis in mice

Ascorbic acid (AA) has been shown to exert beneficial effects, including mitigating oxidative stress and inhibiting inflammation. However, the preventative effect of vitamin C in chronic inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) remains unclear. In our study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of AA and possible mechanism involved in inhibiting dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis in mice. Male C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided to three groups: control group, DSS group, and DSS plus ascorbic acid treated group. Several clinical and inflammatory parameters as well as oxidative stress were evaluated. The results demonstrated that ascorbic acid significantly reduced clinical signs, inflammatory cytokines, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and malonaldehyde (MDA) activities, whereas the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were increased in DSS-induced mice. In addition, ascorbic acid was capable of inhibiting NF-κB, COX-2 and iNOS expression in the colonic. Taken together, these findings suggest that ascorbic acid contributes to the reduction of oxidative stress and inflammatory response in DSS-induced colitis and exerts the potential to prevent and clinical treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.