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Cheng WW, Liu GQ, Wang LQ, Liu ZS. Glycidyl Fatty Acid Esters in Refined Edible Oils: A Review on Formation, Occurrence, Analysis, and Elimination Methods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2017; 16:263-281. [PMID: 33371535 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GEs), one of the main contaminants in processed oils, are mainly formed during the deodorization step in the refining process of edible oils and therefore occur in almost all refined edible oils. GEs are potential carcinogens, due to the fact that they readily hydrolyze into the free form glycidol in the gastrointestinal tract, which has been found to induce tumors in various rat tissues. Furthermore, glycidol has already been identified as a "possible human carcinogen'' (group 2A) by the Intl. Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Therefore, significant effort has been devoted to inhibit and eliminate the formation of GEs. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary on the following topics: (i) GE occurrence data for different edible oils and oil-based food products, (ii) precursors of GEs, (iii) factors influencing the formation of GEs, (iv) potential reaction mechanisms involving the leaving group and reaction intermediates, and (v) analytical methods, including the indirect and direct methods. More importantly, the various elimination methods for GEs in refined edible oils are being reviewed with focus on 3 aspects: (i) inhibition and removal of reactants, (ii) modification of reactive conditions, and (iii) elimination of GE products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wei Cheng
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China Univ. of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Guo-Qin Liu
- Guangdong Testing Inst. for Product Quality Supervision and China Natl. Quality Supervision and Testing Center for Foods (Guangdong), Foshan, 528300, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, South China Univ. of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Li-Qing Wang
- Guangdong Testing Inst. for Product Quality Supervision and China Natl. Quality Supervision and Testing Center for Foods (Guangdong), Foshan, 528300, China
| | - Zeng-She Liu
- Bio-Oils Research Unit, Natl. Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1815 N. Univ. St., Peoria, IL, 61604, U.S.A
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Becalski A, Zhao T, Feng S, Lau BY. A pilot survey of 2- and 3-monochloropropanediol and glycidol fatty acid esters in baby formula on the Canadian market 2012–2013. J Food Compost Anal 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Song Z, Wang Y, Li G, Tan W, Yao S. A novel1H NMR spectroscopic method for determination of glycidyl fatty acid esters coexisting with acylglycerols. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201400332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ziliang Song
- International School; Jinan University; Guangzhou China
- Alberta Innovates Phytola Centre, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science; University of Alberta; Edmonton Alberta Canada
| | - Yong Wang
- Guangdong Saskatchewan Oilseed Joint Laboratory; Department of Food Science and Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou China
| | - Guoqiang Li
- Analytical and Testing Center; Jinan University; Guangzhou China
| | - Wei Tan
- Analytical and Testing Center; Jinan University; Guangzhou China
| | - Shengwen Yao
- Guangdong Saskatchewan Oilseed Joint Laboratory; Department of Food Science and Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou China
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Qi S, Chen H, Liu Y, Wang W, Shen L, Wang Y. Evaluation of Glycidyl Fatty Acid Ester Levels in Camellia Oil with Different Refining Degrees. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2013.858351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Appel KE, Abraham K, Berger-Preiss E, Hansen T, Apel E, Schuchardt S, Vogt C, Bakhiya N, Creutzenberg O, Lampen A. Relative oral bioavailability of glycidol from glycidyl fatty acid esters in rats. Arch Toxicol 2013; 87:1649-59. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1061-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Yamazaki K, Ogiso M, Isagawa S, Urushiyama T, Ukena T, Kibune N. A new, direct analytical method using LC-MS/MS for fatty acid esters of 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol (3-MCPD esters) in edible oils. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:52-68. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2012.713031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Crews C, Chiodini A, Granvogl M, Hamlet C, Hrnčiřík K, Kuhlmann J, Lampen A, Scholz G, Weisshaar R, Wenzl T, Jasti PR, Seefelder W. Analytical approaches for MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in food and biological samples: a review and future perspectives. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2012; 30:11-45. [PMID: 23020628 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2012.720385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Esters of 2 - and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (MCPD) and glycidol esters are important contaminants of processed edible oils used as foods or food ingredients. This review describes the occurrence and analysis of MCPD esters and glycidol esters in vegetable oils and some other foods. The focus is on the analytical methods based on both direct and indirect methods. Methods of analysis applied to oils and lipid extracts of foods have been based on transesterification to free MCPD and determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (indirect methods) and by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (direct methods). The evolution and performance of the different methods is described and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The application of direct and indirect methods to the analysis of foods and to research studies is described. The metabolism and fate of MCPD esters and glycidol esters in biological systems and the methods used to study these in body tissues studies are described. A clear understanding of the chemistry of the methods is important when choosing those suitable for the desired application, and will contribute to the mitigation of these contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Crews
- The Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA), Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, UK
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Indirect Method for Simultaneous Determinations of 3‐Chloro‐1,2‐Propanediol Fatty Acid Esters and Glycidyl Fatty Acid Esters. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-012-2047-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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9
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Comparison of indirect and direct quantification of esters of monochloropropanediol in vegetable oil. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1236:189-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Revised: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Dubois M, Tarres A, Goldmann T, Loeffelmann G, Donaubauer A, Seefelder W. Determination of seven glycidyl esters in edible oils by gel permeation chromatography extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry detection. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:12291-12301. [PMID: 22017647 DOI: 10.1021/jf2028347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A method based on a gel permeation chromatography (GPC) extraction procedure combined with an additional cleanup by solid-phase extraction (SPE) on silica gel and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) detection has been validated for the analysis of seven glycidyl esters (GEs) including glycidyl laurate, myristate, palmitate, stearate, oleate, linoleate, and linolenate in various edible oils. This method was conjointly developed and validated by two different laboratories, using two different detection systems, a LC time of flight MS (LC-ToF-MS) and a LC triple-quadrupole MS (LC-MS/MS). The extraction procedure allowed targeting low contamination levels due to a highly efficient matrix removal from the 400 mg oil sample loaded on the GPC column and is suitable for routine analysis as 24 samples can be extracted in an automated and reproducible way every 12 h. GPC extraction combined with SPE cleanup and LC-MS/MS detection leads to a limit of quantification in oil samples between 50 and 100 μg/kg depending on the type of glycidyl ester. Recoveries ranged from 68 to 111% (average = 93%). Quantification was performed by automated standard addition on extracts to compensate matrix effects artifacts. To control recoveries of each sample four isotopically labeled GEs ((13)C(3) or (13)C(4)) were included in the method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Dubois
- Nestlé Research Center, Nestec Ltd., Vers-chez-les-Blanc, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland.
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Shimizu M, Kudo N, Shiro H, Yasunaga K, Masukawa Y, Katsuragi Y, Yasumasu T. A comparison of the indirect and direct quantification of glycidol ester by kinetic analysis. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201000517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Masao Shimizu
- Healthcare Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2‐1‐3 Bunka, Sumida‐ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoto Kudo
- Healthcare Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2‐1‐3 Bunka, Sumida‐ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroki Shiro
- Analytical Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai‐machi, Haga‐gun, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Koichi Yasunaga
- Kao Health and Nutrition LLC, 500 Park Blvd, Itasca, IL, USA
| | - Yoshinori Masukawa
- Analytical Science Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai‐machi, Haga‐gun, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Katsuragi
- Healthcare Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2‐1‐3 Bunka, Sumida‐ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeshi Yasumasu
- Healthcare Research Laboratories, Kao Corporation, 2‐1‐3 Bunka, Sumida‐ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Bidirectional Conversion Between 3-Monochloro-1,2-propanediol and Glycidol in Course of the Procedure of DGF Standard Methods. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-011-1802-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Shiro H, Kondo N, Kibune N, Masukawa Y. Direct method for quantification of glycidol fatty acid esters in edible oils. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201000395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Hrncirik K, van Duijn G. An initial study on the formation of 3-MCPD esters during oil refining. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201000317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Hamlet CG, Asuncion L. Single-laboratory validation of a method to quantify bound 2-chloropropane-1,3-diol and 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol in foodstuffs using acid catalysed transesterification, HFBI derivatisation and GC/MS detection. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201000492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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