Addressing competencies for the future in the professional curriculum

Leadership Development in Pharmacy Students: A Literature Review

Background

A deeper understanding of leadership competencies and development of these competencies in pharmacy students are essential to enable future pharmacists to take a more advanced role in patient care and serve as interdisciplinary team members and leaders. Such efforts are also needed to help guide succession planning.

Objective

To identify and describe the competencies and experiences involved in leadership development for pharmacy students.

Data Sources

A literature review was conducted using the MEDLINE, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases (from inception to November 2023), as well as syllabi from pharmacy leadership courses.

Study Selection and Data Extraction

Articles discussing leadership competencies in a health care setting and during pharmacy education and training were included. Competencies and experiences related to leadership development were extracted and organized into categories, with each category given a single descriptor.

Data Synthesis

A total of 34 resources were included in the analysis, which revealed the following 7 leadership competencies: leadership knowledge, self-awareness, collaboration, leading change, business skills, systems thinking, and lifelong learning.

Conclusions

Pharmacy students can develop their leadership abilities through a variety of experiences and activities aligned with the core leadership competencies identified here. Pharmacy schools in Canada can design and offer leadership placements to help enhance students' leadership skills. This study has highlighted activities that may help prepare pharmacy students for leadership roles in the changing landscape of pharmacy practice.

Translating Clinical Decision-Making Skills From a Critical Care Pharmacy Elective to the Required Curriculum

OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of a critical care pharmacy elective (CCPE) on student performance in other courses in the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum that emphasize clinical reasoning and decision making.

METHODS

This is a retrospective, cohort study including all students from the 2019-2021 graduating classes enrolled in required courses, Pharmacotherapy and Integrated Patient Cases (IPCs). Students were divided for comparison based on completion of the CCPE. The primary outcome was outstanding performance, defined by a final course grade ≥90%, in Pharmacotherapy and IPC. Baseline characteristics and outcomes were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the χ2 test or two-sided t test for categorical and continuous variables, respectively. Binary logistic regression models were constructed to identify variables associated with the primary outcome.

RESULTS

Of 377 students included, 129 (34%) completed the CCPE. Baseline characteristics were similar between both groups, except more females completed the CCPE. Students that completed the CCPE were not more likely to demonstrate outstanding performance in Pharmacotherapy III (20% vs 30%) or Pharmacotherapy IV (27% vs 24%), but were more likely in IPC (34% vs 23%). In the adjusted analysis, CCPE students were almost twice as likely to exhibit outstanding performance in IPC.

CONCLUSION

Students that completed the CCPE were more likely to demonstrate outstanding performance in IPC, but not in either of the Pharmacotherapy courses. Students may benefit from practicing clinical reasoning earlier in the curriculum to build-up to effective and efficient clinical decision-making. Implications of course structure on student performance should be further explored.

Competency-based pharmacy education definition: What components need to be defined to implement it?

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to define the essential elements in the proposed competency-based pharmacy education (CBPE) definition, provide the key defining components of each essential element on the basis of educational theory and evidence, and define how the essential elements meet the identified needs for CBPE.

METHODS

best-practice integrative review was conducted as part of the work of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy CBPE Task Force to define the essential elements in the CBPE definition and how these elements fit with the need for CBPE. The definition was compared with other published competency-based education definitions across K-12, higher education, medical education, and veterinary education. Task Force members then met to develop a consensus on the core components of the 5 essential elements in the definition. Next, the Task Force evaluated the fit of CBPE by matching the identified needs, discussed in detail elsewhere, across each of the stakeholder perspectives with the core components of the 5 essential elements in the derived definition of CBPE.

FINDINGS

Upon review of the proposed CBPE definition, the Task Force identified 5 essential elements. These elements include the following: meeting health care and societal needs, outcomes-based curricular model, de-emphasized time, learner-centered culture, and authentic teaching and learning strategies aligned to assessments.

SUMMARY

This article helps to establish a common language for CBPE by defining the essential elements of the core components of the definition, and provides a starting point for further exploration of CBPE.

What learning strategies are commonly used by hospital pharmacists in the process of self-directed learning? A multicentre qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

As lifelong learners, hospital pharmacists must continually improve their self-directed learning skills. Reasonable learning strategies have been proven to enhance self-directed learning (SDL) significantly. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the SDL strategies used by hospital pharmacists in depth to provide them with a reference for the development of their SDL skills.

SETTING

The study was conducted in three tertiary hospitals in Henan, China.

DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS

This study employed a multicentre qualitative design and lasted 12 months. One-on-one interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, and the interview data were analysed using the thematic analysis method. Purposive sampling was used to select interviewees (n=17) from three tertiary hospitals in Henan province in central China.

RESULTS

After conducting data analysis, we summarised 12 learning strategies related to SDL, which were grouped into four themes: use of information resources, application of cognitive strategies, development of learning plans and use of learning platforms.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that classic learning strategies, such as cognitive strategies and the development of learning plans, remain the cornerstones of hospital pharmacists' SDL abilities, while contemporary advances in information technology and changes in learning concepts have enriched the learning resources and learning platforms that are available to hospital pharmacists and have confronted contemporary hospital pharmacists with certain challenges.

Motivation, satisfaction, and future career intentions of pharmacy students: A cross-sectional preliminary analysis

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the pharmacy profession has undergone many changes that impacted pharmacy educational programs and students' needs and experiences. In Lebanon, no previous studies have addressed students' perspectives of pharmacy studies and their future aspirations.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was randomly sent to all pharmacy students at the main campus of the Lebanese International University. Questions included demographics, students' reasons for choosing pharmacy, satisfaction regarding choice of pharmacy, and future career plans.

RESULTS

Pharmacy as a study major was the first choice for 61% of respondents, and reasons for this choice were family recommendations (87%), friends' encouragement (26%), and schoolteachers' endorsements (20%). Looking for a job with various career opportunities, flexible working hours, security, good salary, and wishing to provide public service and improve health were the main incentives to join the pharmacy program. Concerning their satisfaction, 88% were proud of studying pharmacy and 66% would choose to study pharmacy if they were to select their program of study again. As for career intentions, 68% were considering community pharmacy, 66% hospital pharmacy, and 60% academic pharmacy.

CONCLUSIONS

While the attitudes, perceptions, and career intentions of the respondents were variable, the majority were aspired by family or societal factors to study pharmacy, were satisfied by their choice, and intended to work in the community pharmacy sector. Pharmacy curricula should be regularly assessed to meet students' expectations and society's needs.

A New Vision of Teaching Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics for Undergraduate Medical Students

For many years, clinical pharmacology (CP) has been taught at schools of medicine via traditional methods including classic lectures and experimental sessions. The explosion of scientific knowledge and the availability of many treatment options have necessitated the development of new strategies for pharmacology teaching and learning. Applying information learnt in real-life situations has become more important than finding information that is readily available in many places. The newly implemented reformed curriculum at Umm Al Qura University - Faculty of Medicine (UQUMED) is a student-centred, competency-based curriculum with enhanced integration across the disciplines. Teachers and students have a great responsibility in updating the curriculum. The "Use of Medicine" (UofM) vertical module is part of this reformed curriculum that focuses on key principles, a core list of medications, the vertical and horizontal integration of subjects, the knowledge application to real case situations, enhanced critical thinking and self-learning. It emphasizes rational prescribing, safe medical practice and excellence in teaching CP and therapeutics. The adoption of newer and innovative teaching and assessment methods and the training of faculty/staff can help to refresh CP education. One challenge in CP education is that teachers are shifting from acting as information providers to acting as facilitators so that students become life-long learners. The assessment of our reformed curriculum uses several valid reliable tools to evaluate the achieved skills and competencies. This manuscript describes the transformational changes in CP education at UQU up to the development and implementation of the UofM vertical module as part of the reformed UQUMED curriculum. Continuous updates in CP education are critical for rational, safe, and affordable medication prescribing for better patient care.

Pharmaceutical care education at pharmacy colleges in the Middle East and North Africa region: A systematic review

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

New pharmacy curricula include content that equip students with a bundle of professional and interpersonal skills that allows the provision of evidence-based patient-centred pharmaceutical care (PC). PC has been adopted as a practise model underpinning these new roles for pharmacists in developed countries. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that countries in the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) region have been relatively slow in including PC in pharmacy education. There seems to be a need to more accurately describe the extent to which PC is included in pharmacy education in the MENA region. The objective of this systematic review was (a) to determine the status of PC education in schools and colleges of pharmacy in the MENA region and (b) to identify pharmacy students' and/or educators' perceptions and attitudes towards PC, preparedness level to PC provision and perceived barriers to implement this practise model in countries of the MENA region.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted using MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS, International Pharmaceutical Abstract and ProQuest databases to identify articles published from 2000 to 2021. Selection of studies for inclusion in the review was based on a pre-determined eligibility criterion to retrieve original research articles addressing the review objectives.

RESULTS

Nine articles were eligible for inclusion in the review. The majority of the studies (n = 8) employed a survey-based research method. The studies were conducted in Jordan (n = 4), Kuwait (n = 2), Qatar (n = 2), Saudi Arabia (n = 1) and United Arab Emirates (n = 1). The findings suggest that pharmacy students had overall positive attitude and perception towards PC and some studies reported that students expressed good preparedness levels to implement most of the PC aspects. Several barriers to the implementation of PC were reported such as the slow educational reforms in pharmacy programs and a number of organizational and professional barriers. The studies provided recommendations for improvements in the pharmacy curricula to support pharmacy students' preparation to become competent PC practitioners.

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

The literature describing PC education in the MENA region is limited. Joint efforts among educational institutions and health authorities are needed to support PC implementation. There is a need to conduct further research to explore the status of PC education and practise in the different countries within the MENA region. This can drive future directions of pharmacy education to meet the needs of the pharmacy profession and healthcare systems in these countries.

A discussion of White fragility to facilitate cultural competence development in a foundations of pharmaceutical care class

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study was to explore pharmacy students' emotional reaction to the concept of White fragility and garner ideas about improving pharmacy curriculum to initiate constructive patient engagement across racial divides.

METHODS

An online questionnaire was distributed to 160 first-year pharmacy students after reading the article "White Fragility" for a Foundations of Pharmaceutical Care Course. Class prep questions included (1) How can the college and you improve the capacity and stamina of Whites, so they are prepared to teach and initiate constructive patient engagement across racial divides? and (2) Recognizing that emotions play a critical role in learning, how does the information in the "White Fragility" article make you feel? Responses were analyzed using a constant comparative method by all three authors; discrepancies were resolved by consensus.

RESULTS

Of the 160 students across two campuses, 157 submitted responses. Four major categories of college culture, curriculum, educational topics, and educational suggestions or enhancements emerged "to improve the capacity and stamina of Whites." With regard to the observed feelings after reading "White Fragility," seven categories of feelings (frequency) emerged, including awareness (49%), discomfort (38.2%), empathy (19.7%), defensiveness (16.6%), frustration (15.9%), empowerment (11.5%), and curiosity (8.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

This student cohort is at the beginning of their intercultural journey in pharmacy. Many indicated that more emphasis on and discussion about issues like White fragility and racism would benefit their ability to care for people from a wide variety of cultures to optimize patient outcomes.

Healthcare Provider Advocacy for Primary Health Care Strengthening: A Call for Action

Primary Health Care (PHC) is the backbone of health systems and a cornerstone of Universal Health Coverage. In 2018, political commitment to PHC, including a comprehensive approach based on essential care throughout the lifespan, integrated public health functions, and community empowerment was reaffirmed by international stakeholders in Astana. As recent events exposed weaknesses of health care systems worldwide, growing attention has been paid to strengthening PHC. While the role of care providers as health advocates has been recognized, they may lack skills, opportunities, and resources to actively engage in advocacy. Particularly for PHC providers, guidance and tools on how to advocate to strengthen PHC are scarce. In this article, we review priority policy areas for PHC strengthening with relevance for several settings and health care systems and propose approaches to empower PHC providers-physician, non-physician, or informal PHC providers-to advocate for strengthening PHC in their countries by individual or collective action. We provide initial ideas for a stepwise advocacy strategy and recommendations for practical advocacy activities. Our aim is to initiate further discussion on how to strengthen health care provider driven advocacy for PHC and to encourage advocates in the field to reflect on their opportunities for local, national, and global action.

Developing and piloting a self-assessment tool for medication review competence of practicing pharmacists based on nationally set competence criteria

BACKGROUND

New competence requirements have emerged for pharmacists as a result of changing societal needs towards more patient-centred practices. Today, medication review competence can be considered as basic pharmaceutical competence. Medication review specific competence criteria and tools for self-assessing the competence are essential in building competences and a shared understanding of medication reviews as a collaborative practice. The aim of this study was to develop and pilot a self-assessment tool for medication review competence among practicing pharmacists in Finland.

METHODS

The development of the self-assessment tool was based on the national medication review competence criteria for pharmacists established in Finland in 2017 and piloting the tool among practicing pharmacists in a national online survey in October 2018. The pharmacists self-assessed their medication review competence with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 for "very poor/not at all" to 5 for "very good".

RESULTS

The internal consistency of the self-assessment tool was high as the range of the competence areas' Cronbach's alpha was 0.953-0.973. The competence areas consisted of prescription review competence (20 items, Cronbach's alpha 0.953), additional statements for medication review competence (11 additional items, Cronbach's alpha 0.963) and medication review as a whole, including both the statements of prescription review and medication review competence (31 items, Cronbach's alpha 0.973). Competence items closely related to routine dispensing were most commonly self-estimated to be mastered by the practicing pharmacists who responded (n = 344), while the more clinical and patient-centred competence items had the lowest self-estimates. This indicates that the self-assessment tool works logically and differentiates pharmacists according to competence. The self-assessed medication review competence was at a very good or good level among more than half (55%) of the respondents (n = 344).

CONCLUSION

A self-assessment tool for medication review competence was developed and validated. The piloted self-assessment tool can be used for regular evaluation of practicing pharmacists' medication review competence which is becoming an increasingly important basis for their contribution to patient care and society.

Identifying areas of improvement for cultural competence in pharmacy curricula: A multi-school study using the self-assessment of perceived level of cultural competence (SAPLCC) questionnaire

INTRODUCTION

The implementation of culturally competent healthcare services has been considered a key strategy for the provision of patient-centered care; however, a need remains to address the requirements of teaching cultural competence, including identifying gaps, designing and evaluating curricula, and assessing students' progress toward program objectives. The objective of this study was to explore the applicability of the Self-Assessment of Perceived Level of Cultural Competence (SAPLCC) questionnaire in the identification of improvement areas in cultural competence content in pharmacy curricula.

METHODS

This study used previously-collected SAPLCC data from student pharmacists at eight United States pharmacy schools. Total and factor-specific SAPLCC scores were calculated based on the 14 factors published previously and grouped into six domains (knowledge, skills, attitudes, encounters, abilities, and awareness). Differences in overall scores by domain and factors across various student characteristics were examined using analysis of variance.

RESULTS

The overall mean total SAPLCC score was classified as moderate. Third-year students had significantly higher SAPLCC mean scores than first-year students, and African American students scored significantly higher than their counterparts. At the factor-level, students scored higher in the Attitudes and Awareness domains and scored lower in the Knowledge, Skills, and Encounters domains.

CONCLUSIONS

The application of the SAPLCC in schools participating in this preliminary study allowed for the identification of content areas that may benefit from revision. The SAPLCC may be a useful tool for mapping cultural competence curricular content by each specific domain and identifying areas of potential improvement regarding cultural competence training within pharmacy curricula.

Impact of a Simulated Legislative Visit on Student Pharmacists' Political Skill Inventory Scores

Objective. To assess the impact of a simulated legislative visit on the Political Skill Inventory (PSI) scores of Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students and assess their perceptions of their role as an advocate.Methods. Anonymous pre- and post-intervention surveys were administered online to third year student pharmacists at one school of pharmacy in North Carolina. Measures included gender, age, previous pharmacy experience, engagement in pharmacy organizations, legislative awareness and engagement, political skill inventory, and perceptions of the simulated legislative visit. Data are presented as medians or proportions, where appropriate. Paired t tests and Cohen d were used to analyze the data.Results. Thirty student pharmacists provided complete and matchable results for the pre- and post-intervention surveys (analysis response rate=36%). The mean PSI score was 5.4 before the intervention and increased to 5.7 after the intervention. The networking ability and interpersonal influence subscales showed significant and medium-to-large increases in effect size whereas the social astuteness and apparent sincerity subscales showed low-to-medium increases in effect size. Student pharmacists' agreement with advocacy skills or responsibilities increased overall from pre-to post-intervention.Conclusion. The political skill inventory scores of student pharmacists significantly improved following participation in a simulated legislative visit and listening to a corresponding advocacy lecture. Determining the effectiveness of educational interventions to develop advocacy skills in student pharmacists is essential to ensure efficacy and potential for PharmD students and graduates to make real-world impacts.

Using the Delphi technique to determine objectives and topical outline for a pharmaceutical care course: an experience from the Cuban higher education system

BACKGROUND

Being pharmaceutical care one of the four areas defined by the International Pharmaceutical Federation's Global Competence Framework, the curriculum redesigned scheme is a priority task to perform a pharmaceutical workforce capable to contribute significantly to the appropriate use of medicines. Therefore, the pharmacy curriculum should be adapted, in order to provide pharmacists with new knowledge and skills to provide pharmaceutical care services. This study used a modified Delphi technique to define objectives and topical outlines for a pharmaceutical care course on a pharmacy curriculum.

METHODS

A modified Delphi process was used to determine a consensus among proposed course objectives and topical outlines. The preliminary phase of the study included a compilation of prospective objectives and outline topics on which to structure informational flow through the Delphi. A two-round modified Delphi process were completed by the participants in the study. The Delphi questionnaire was organized using six domains: the theoretical program foundation; recommended for teaching literature; instructional and educational objectives of the program (course structure); teaching methods; knowledge, skills and professional values considered; and students' performance assessments. Nineteen items for evaluation within the referred domains were considered.

RESULTS

Consensus was achieved among 15 participants regarding 10 objectives, and eleven topical outlines related to pharmaceutical care teaching in an undergraduate pharmacy course. Despite this favorable valuation and considering the qualitative evaluations provided by the participants, it was believed appropriate to analyze the recommendation for the inclusion of literature for the teaching of the course in Spanish language (73%). It resulted in a project proposal for the elaboration of a book by a group of authors from all the faculties of pharmacy in the country.

CONCLUSION

A Delphi expert panel achieved consensus on topical outline and objectives for a pharmaceutical care course. The results of this study can be used to underline the didactic guidance for pharmaceutical care teaching and learning useful for future pharmacy curriculum upgrades.

Team-Based Learning and Lecture-Based Learning: Comparison of Sudanese Medical Students' Performance

AIM

Students' performance in TBL compared to LBL needs to be evaluated. This study aimed to compare students' performance in team-based learning and traditional lectures.

METHODS

A total of 176 class 4 and 202 class 6 medical students from University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan, participated in the study during 2018. Experienced staff were selected to conduct the teaching and assessment of the two groups, using the standard team-based learning procedure (iRAT, gRAT and AppT) in the first topic and the lecture-based learning procedure in the second, within the same time limit for the two methods.

RESULTS

The two classes overall mean score has a significant 5.1 points difference (p<0.001; 95% CI: 3.5, 6.0). Separate analysis showed consistency of superiority of TBL to LBL in either gender. A remarkable difference was observed when we compared the two methods in class 6 separately from class 4. Class 6 mean score was high for both TBL and LBL (77.2 and 70.2, respectively), with a significant mean difference of 7.0 (p<0.001; 95% CI: 5.1, 8.9). In class 4, the score was lower for both methods (mean of 62.8 for TBL and 59.9 for LBL). The mean difference of 2.95 points was still significant (p<0.05; 95% CI: 0.46, 5.43). Separate multivariate linear regression for TBL and LBL showed no significant difference in performance of males and females in either method. Controlling for gender in TBL, class 4 had a mean of -14.26 points, (p<0.001; 95% CI: -12.54, -15.98) less than class 6. Similarly, in LBL, class 4 had a mean of -10.18 points (p<0.001, 95% CI: -7.02, -13.35), less than class 6.

CONCLUSION

Students' performance using team-based learning was superior to lecture-based learning, irrespective of students' gender, noticeable among senior students.

Development of Professional Attributes through Integration of Science and Practice at First-Year Pharmacy Level

The design, implementation and evaluation of a year 1 pharmacy-integrated learning component, using the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) analgesic ladder as a scaffold for case-based learning, is described. A novel aspect of the integrated component is the mapping of the cases to the national Core Competency Framework (CCF) for Pharmacists in Ireland and to the school’s own cross-cutting curricular integration themes. The integrated cases were student led and delivered through peer-to-peer teaching for 68 first-year pharmacy students. The integrated cases mapped strongly to three of the CCF’s domains, namely, personal skills, organisation and management skills and supply of medicines. With regard to the school’s curricular integrative themes, the cases mapped strongly to the curricular integration themes of professionalism and communications; medicines sourcing, production and use; and safe and rational use of medicines. Highlights from an anonymous online student survey were the recognition by students of the importance of core science knowledge for practice, the enabling of integrated learning and the suitability of the integrated component for entry-level. While a majority of students were found to favour individual work over group work, future iterations will need to consider a greater degree of group work with a view to reducing the volume of content and time required to complete the cases.

Competency-based education in pharmacy: A review of its development, applications, and challenges

RATIONALE, AIMS, AND OBJECTIVES

There has been a resurgence of interest in the application of competency-based education (CBE) in health care professionals' education in recent years, including the pharmacy profession. This model strives to prepare a competent pharmacy workforce to help meet societal needs for effective, safe, and economical health care services. The aim of this narrative review is to provide an overview of the applications of CBE in the education and training of pharmacists, the process for constructing a competency-based pharmacy curriculum, and the potential advantages and challenges associated with its implementation.

METHOD

A comprehensive literature review was conducted via PubMed and Scopus databases using a variety of keywords related to the topic (from 1975 to 2019). Other electronic resources (Google Scholar and the Education Resources Information Center) were searched to identify educational outcomes of pharmacy programmes emphasizing competency development and competency frameworks/standards for the pharmacy profession that were published up to 2019.

RESULTS

CBE has been increasingly adopted in pharmacy education, mainly in developed countries. A number of competency frameworks have been advanced to support the design of CBE curricula, accreditation standards of pharmacy programmes, and professional pharmacy registration/licensure. Several examples of the application of competency-based pharmacy education (CBPE) were identified at undergraduate, postgraduate, and professional development levels. Transforming a traditional pharmacy programme into CBPE offers several potential benefits but can also be associated with significant challenges. Successful implementation of CBPE programmes requires strong and supportive institutional leadership; proper curricular design, implementation, and management; and focus on faculty training and development.

CONCLUSION

The adoption of CBPE can enhance the ability of pharmacy education to meet the rapidly evolving societal health care needs. This model has been applied in developed countries at different levels throughout the pharmacist's learning continuum. It has also been investigated in some developing regions.

Pharmacy educators' views on graduate attributes and case-based learning in an undergraduate degree

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The nature, form, and process of activating graduate attributes is an expanding research focus within the field of professional education. The focus on graduate capabilities has led to higher education institutions interrogating current curricula practices with a view to exploring innovative ways to transform curricula and pedagogy. This article explores pharmacy educators' views on which graduate attributes are important and investigates the role of case-based learning (CBL) in developing graduate attributes in a single university program.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

This qualitative study is based on data drawn from reflective interviews with pharmacy educators on graduate attributes and from document analysis. Data were analyzed against a framework of graduate attributes and grouped into three domains encompassing knowledge and action as well as construction of graduates' identities as members of a profession.

FINDINGS

The graduate attributes identified by pharmacy educators resonated with the extant literature, organizational policy documents, and the professional council's accreditation framework. The domains of knowledge (Domain 1) and possessing and displaying (Domain 2) are sufficiently addressed in the curriculum. However, engagement with identity construction and roles and responsibilities (Domain 3) appears to be relatively less-developed through CBL.

SUMMARY

While CBL in its current form exhibits limitations with regard to developing Domain 3, it has the potential to develop this through emotionally rich cases, role models, and greater integration of CBL and inter-professional education (IPE) as well as making graduate attributes more explicit within the curriculum.

Rethinking Competence: A Nexus of Educational Models in the Context of Lifelong Learning

Competency-based education (CBE) “derives a curriculum from an analysis of a prospective or actual role in modern society and attempts to certify students’ progress on the basis of demonstrated performance in some or all aspects of that role”. This paper summarizes pertinent aspects of existing CBE models in health professions education; pharmacy education presented as an example. It presents a synthesis of these models to propose a new diagrammatic representation. A conceptual model for competency-based health professions education with a focus on learning and assessment is discussed. It is argued that various elements of CBE converge to holistically portray competency-based learning and assessment as essential in initial education and relevant to practitioners’ continuing professional development, especially in the context and importance of pursing lifelong learning practices.

Physician Assistant Educator Competencies

The rapid expansion of physician assistant (PA) programs over the past decade has led to a shortage of experienced PA faculty. This has prompted many faculty development initiatives to help provide the skills needed by new faculty making the jump from clinical practice to academia. Faculty development is a key necessity in health professions education because many of the professionals attracted to the educator role are primarily trained as clinicians. Although this issue has been extensively evaluated by our colleagues in medical, nursing, and health education and various faculty development interventions have been implemented, this has not been done in the PA profession. In an effort to correct this, the Physician Assistant Education Association assembled a task force of experienced PA educators and charged them to evaluate the literature on faculty competencies in health professions education and to develop a set of PA educator competencies to help codify the essential knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors that faculty need to be successful in their academic roles.The task force met its charge by engaging in an extensive review of the literature, developing a competency framework and proposed competencies, and soliciting the input of a diverse panel of experts in PA education to vet the proposed competencies. Using the insights and recommendations from the expert panel, the task force refined the competencies-resulting in the framework of PA educator competencies presented in this document.

Pharmacology through Play: using Lego® to revise core concepts for undergraduates

This article was migrated. The article was marked as recommended. Background: Pharmacology, while critical knowledge for healthcare professionals, is often viewed by students as dry and difficult to understand. We sought to examine the student acceptability of a Lego®-based learning session, in an attempt to improve pharmacology learning. Methods: In line with constructivist theories, students were facilitated to build, in small groups, their own Lego® shape to represent an area of core pharmacology and to use this to explain the concept to other students (e.g. agonist-receptor interactions). The validated Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) was used to gauge students' ideas on the session. Multiple choice questions were used before and after the session to evaluate knowledge. Results: Most students were positive regarding the session, finding it enjoyable, relevant for their learning and even recommending it be used to explore more complex areas of pharmacology. In addition, there was a significant increase in the MCQ scores following the session. Conclusions: This study used constructivist theory to develop a novel teaching intervention to create a more student-centred, active learning environment. This effective low-cost method could be applied to other teaching programmes to enhance student learning.

Modeling Doctor of Pharmacy Students' Stress, Satisfaction, and Professionalism Over Time

Objective. To gauge multiple dimensions of pharmacy students' professionalism, stress, and satisfaction with the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) program. Methods. An online survey of first- through fourth-year pharmacy students was conducted from 2015-2018 to gauge the degree of students' professionalism (personal reflection, patient-centric care focus, cultural and interprofessional competencies), program stress (levels, sources, and burnout syndrome), and satisfaction. Multilevel structural equation modeling (SEM) determined the relationship between stress and satisfaction, and the degree to which these impacted levels of professionalism after adjusting for potential correlates (age, sex, financial stress, relationship status, race, and employment status). Results. Seven hundred sixty-four responses to the survey were received across the four calendar years. Of the students in the sample, 51% were female with a mean (SD) age of 26.6 (3.4) years. The overall response rate to the surveys was 86.2%. Professionalism was most strongly indicated by the measures of community-centeredness, patient-centeredness, and perceived benefits of being part of a team-based environment. The SEM model demonstrated an inverse relationship between the two composite latent constructs of stress and satisfaction. When modeled simultaneously, program satisfaction was found to be the more significant predictor of professionalism than stress after adjusting for associations with age, sex, and relationship status. Conclusion. Professionalism of pharmacy students is positively associated with students' satisfaction with the program, but professionalism is not independently significantly predicted by stress. Students who have positive responses to community- and patient-centeredness and who feel they benefit from engaging in a team-based environment are most likely to have greater professionalism.

Current Trends and Opportunities for Competency Assessment in Pharmacy Education-A Literature Review

An increasing emphasis on health professional competency in recent times has been matched by an increased prevalence of competency-based education models. Assessments can generate information on competence, and authentic, practice-based assessment methods are critical. Assessment reform has emerged as an academic response to the demands of the pharmacy profession and the need to equip graduates with the necessary knowledge, skills and attributes to face the challenges of the modern workforce. The objective of this review was to identify and appraise the range of assessment methods used in entry-level pharmacy education and examine current trends in health professional assessment. The initial search located 2854 articles. After screening, 36 sources were included in the review, 13 primary research studies, 12 non-experimental pharmacy research papers, and 11 standards and guidelines from the grey literature. Primary research studies were critically appraised using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI). This review identified three areas in pharmacy practice assessment which provide opportunities for expansion and improvement of assessment approaches: (1) integrated approaches to performance assessment; (2) simulation-based assessment approaches, and; (3) collection of validity evidence to support assessment decisions. Competency-based assessment shows great potential for expanded use in pharmacy, but there is a need for further research and development to ensure its appropriate and effective use.

Perceptions of Australian and Malaysian Educators in an Undergraduate Pharmacy Program on Case-based Learning

Objective. To determine the perceptions of lecturers toward case-based learning (CBL) and to elicit their feedback and opinions regarding the design of CBL sessions within the pharmacy curricula. Methods. One-on-one interviews were conducted with 10 academic staff members involved in teaching an undergraduate Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) program. All sessions were audio-recorded and field notes were compiled. The recordings were transcribed, and thematic analysis of responses was performed. Results. Four key themes were identified: perceived benefits of CBL, challenges in implementing CBL within the curricula, characteristics of effective and engaging CBL, and relevance and implementation of CBL within the curriculum. Some of the specific benefits of CBL identified by participants included the applicability of knowledge learned to students' future role as pharmacists. Participants also identified challenges such as the design of CBL cases and course time constraints. Respondents also emphasized the need for more training for facilitators in how to design cases and facilitate sessions. Conclusion. While participants identified numerous benefits of CBL, they also identified challenges to implementing this learning method within the pharmacy school curriculum. Paying careful attention to selecting facilitators and providing appropriate facilitator training, in terms of facilitation and case design, is paramount in effectively implementing CBL sessions.

Scoping Pharmacy Students' Learning Outcomes: Where Do We Stand?

Background: The professional abilities of graduate pharmacists have been associated with pharmacy undergraduates’ educational settings and features. This study aimed to perform a scoping review on how students’ learning outcomes are achieved, including learning assessment strategies, focusing on current pharmacy practice education. Methods: Relevant keywords, e.g., “pharmacy practice”, “(students or undergraduates)” and “outcomes” were browsed in Public/Publisher MEDLINE, Scientific Electronic Library Online, Directory of Open Access Journals, and other relevant databases for recently published sources (2018 and 2017). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses criteria were followed to assure the scoping quality. All types of students’ learning outcomes were addressed for indexed publications in English, Portuguese or Spanish. Reviews, descriptive studies and commentaries were excluded. Study data are presented in tables comprising objectives, methods, number of participants and main research findings. Results: Overall, 100 studies were identified and 22 were selected. The selected studies were distributed into seven main topics: real practices (n = 9); active-learning strategies (n = 5); comparisons between different teaching pedagogies (n = 3); pharmacy curriculum (n = 2); and other evaluations (n = 3). Conclusions: Studies on pharmacy students’ learning outcomes are limited. Pharmacy undergraduates’ performance was dependent on the learning strategies and extension of syllabus implementation.

Trends in the Pharmacist Workforce and Pharmacy Education

This commentary is an observation of longitudinal trends in national data on the pharmacist workforce and pharmacy education. Data indicate seismic shifts in supply and demand, from critical shortage to imminent oversupply. The change in the profession to employing more patient-care focused jobs has been observed as slow and minimal, although academia has focused on the clinical training and rapidly increased enrollments. Pharmacy is on the brink of transforming the profession, but several important changes are still required to alter the current trajectories of supply and demand. Pharmacy schools, associations, and employers must devote all energies to immediate and significant actions that tip the balance in favor of pharmacists of the future.

Identifying self-assessed competencies and areas for improvement within community pharmacist-preceptors support during pre-registration training

BACKGROUND

Competency frameworks that prompt personal and professional development have become an important component of lifelong learning; they are driven by healthcare professionals' need for development and professional recognition. This study aimed to evaluate the self-assessed competencies of community pharmacist-preceptors by using Croatian Competency Framework (CCF) and to identify competencies to be improved. The secondary aim was to explore the association between community pharmacists' characteristics (i.e. age, education etc.) and self-assessed competency performance.

METHODS

The study subjects were community pharmacist-preceptors who provide support to and mentor student trainees enrolled in pre-registration training for pharmacy students. At the beginning of their mentorship, the pharmacist-preceptors assessed their competencies on a four-point Likert scale by using the Croatian Competency Framework (CCF), a validated tool for assessment and self-assessment of community and hospital pharmacists. Data were collected via e-mail in the period from October 2015 to April 2016.

RESULTS

Of the 260 community pharmacists approached, final analysis included 223 respondents. The response rate was 85.8%. Community pharmacist-preceptors assessed themselves as the most competent in competencies pertaining to the cluster "Organization and management competencies" (M = 3.64, SD = 0.34), while they considered themselves as the least competent in the competencies pertaining to the cluster "Pharmaceutical public health competencies" (M = 2.75, SD = 0.77). Younger pharmacists with a postgraduate qualification who worked for large pharmacy chains in the capital city area and who had been in their current posts for a shorter period perceived themselves to be more competent.

CONCLUSION

This research represents the first analysis of the CCF in practice and identifies community pharmacist-preceptor competencies that require improvement. Consequently, areas for additional professional education were defined. Implementing modalities to measure and support development of preceptors' competences is essential for improvement of student training programmes.

Assessing the impact of a didactic lecture for student pharmacists on legislative advocacy

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Advocacy has been defined as "the essential competence". Literature describes and assesses the impact of elective, extracurricular, and co-curricular advocacy experiences, but there is a deficiency of literature that describes and assesses core curricular advocacy experiences.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

An electronic pre- and post-survey was administered to second-year student pharmacists who attended a didactic lecture on advocacy within a pharmacy law course. All responses were anonymous and matched via self-generated code. Wilcoxon signed rank tests analyzed matched data.

FINDINGS

Pharmacy students were generally unaware of their legislative representation and did not know what to expect when meeting with legislators. A small percentage (24%) had previously contacted their legislator regarding pharmacy topics. All three knowledge items and seven of eight attitudes showed statistically significant improvement after the lecture. Following the lecture, 85% of students agreed/strongly agreed they were more prepared to be an advocate for pharmacy, with 76% reporting increased commitment.

DISCUSSION

This study shows that a brief didactic educational intervention may improve student pharmacists' knowledge of and commitment to political advocacy, addressing previously noted limitations of models to prepare student pharmacists for advocacy efforts. The skill of advocating was not addressed by this intervention.

SUMMARY

A brief didactic lecture at one institution showed a short-term positive influence on pharmacy students' knowledge and attitudes towards legislative advocacy. Introduction of advocacy within the core didactic curricula may provide a method to increase the prevalence of advocates within the profession of pharmacy, but this requires further assessment and identification of best practices.

Integration of mentored self-directed learning (MSDL) through both group and individual presentations in an accelerated modified block program

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Project aim was to examine the feasibility and logistics of mentored self-directed learning (MSDL) through group and individual presentations in an accelerated modified block curriculum. Perspectives of students and faculty members toward the incorporation of MSDL were also explored.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY AND SETTING

During a two-week pharmacotherapy block, students made group presentations requiring two elements: a case presentation on curricular content (Element-1) and an inclusion of "novel" information students did not receive didactically (Element-2). Curricular content for Element-1 stemmed from a pharmacotherapy course on gastroenterology and nutrition, and individual presentations were scheduled during a semester-long skill-based course. Surveys on student perspectives were conducted at baseline, after group presentations, and after individual presentations. Faculty members also provided feedback and evaluations.

FINDINGS

Whereas 58% of students considered a case presentation (Element-1) more valuable for their learning than inclusion of Element-2, 78% of faculty's responses indicated the incorporation of both Elements was valuable. For the following individual presentations, 73% of students were willing and able to present a topic not extensively addressed in the didactic curriculum by employing MSDL. Students improved their confidence in preparing and making presentations for peers and faculty/preceptors through the MSDL activities (p < 0.025). At the end of this project, the faculty determined 88% of students were ready to give a presentation considered appropriate for Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experience.

DISCUSSION

MSDL through group and individual presentation activities were feasible and provided a valuable learning experience for students in an accelerated modified block curriculum.

Preceptor confidence and engagement in providing leadership activities to students in advanced pharmacy practice experiences

INTRODUCTION

Preceptor perceptions about providing leadership activities during the fourth year of the doctor of pharmacy curriculum were examined.

METHODS

An anonymous questionnaire was sent electronically to 610 preceptors of fourth year doctor of pharmacy students in August 2015 inquiring about confidence in leadership ability, extent of student engagement in leadership activities, and preceptor support needed. Differences based on leadership background, such as formal training, were examined using independent t-test. Continuous data are presented as mean (standard deviation). P-value < 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

Survey response rate was 28% (n = 171). Preceptor confidence in ability to provide leadership activities was 7.38 + /-1.66 [0-10 Likert scale; 0 = cannot do at all, 10 = highly certain can do]. Preceptors were most confident teaching that leadership comes from those with and without titles (8.48 + /-1.64) and least confident engaging students in advocacy (5.41 + /-3.02). Preceptors were most likely to engage students in collaboration [3(1-4)] and least likely to involve them in advocacy [1(1-4)] (measured from 1-4 with 1 = never and 4 = very often). Preceptors with formal leadership training demonstrated higher confidence and more engagement with involving students in leadership activities than those without training (p < 0.05). Examples of common leadership activities shared by preceptors included experiential clinical activities and projects, teaching opportunities, discussions with leaders, and participation in meetings. Leadership training and development was the most requested type of support by preceptors (n = 23, 13.5%).

CONCLUSION

Preceptors were overall confident about their ability to provide leadership activities, were involving students in some leadership activities, and had the least confidence and engagement in involving students in advocacy. Preceptors may consider increasing engagement in teaching student leadership skills by utilizing examples in this study. Colleges of pharmacy and organizations may collaborate to increase preceptor access to formal leadership training programs and offer preceptor development programs designed to enhance preceptors' abilities to facilitate student leadership experience, reflection on experience, and feedback.

Longitudinal evaluation of student professionalism throughout the professional didactic curriculum of a pharmacy program

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to evaluate longitudinal changes in professionalism of pharmacy students across the curriculum using a validated instrument that minimizes ceiling effect.

METHODS

The Professionalism Assessment Tool (PAT) was administered to first, second, and third year PharmD students twice throughout the first and second professional year (P1 and P2) and three times throughout the third professional year (P3).

RESULTS

Longitudinal increases in all five domains of professionalism of the PAT were noted as students progressed through each year of the didactic curriculum. Most demographic categories (sex, age, employment in a pharmacy, and number of other degrees held) of respondents did not affect self-assessment results. Two demographic categories, the number of student organizations and age group, had statistically significant impact on self-reported professionalism.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study showed longitudinal improvement in student self-assessment of professionalism over the course of the didactic curriculum at one school. Self-assessment of pharmacy student professionalism increased over the course of the didactic curriculum and was not affected by most demographics.

Design and Implementation of a Professional Development Course Series

Objective. To design and implement a longitudinal course series focused on professional development and professional identity formation in pharmacy students at Western New England University. Methods. A four-year, theme-based course series was designed to sequentially and longitudinally impart the values, attributes, and characteristics of a professional pharmacist. Requirements of the course include: goal planning and reflective assignments, submission of "Best Works," attendance at professional meetings, completion of service hours, annual completion of a Pharmacy Professionalism Instrument, attendance at Dean's Seminar, participation in roundtable discussions, and maintenance of an electronic portfolio. Though the Professional Development course series carries no credit, these courses are progression requirements and students are assessed on a pass/fail basis. Results. Course pass rates in the 2015-2016 academic year for all four classes were 99% to 100%, suggesting the majority of students take professional development seriously and are achieving the intended outcomes of the courses. Conclusion. A professional development course series was designed and implemented in the new Doctor of Pharmacy program at Western New England University to enhance the professional identity formation of students.

Impact of Student vs Faculty Facilitators on Motivational Interviewing Student Outcomes

Objective. To determine the impact of student or faculty facilitation on student self-assessed attitudes, confidence, and competence in motivational interviewing (MI) skills; actual competence; and evaluation of facilitator performance. Methods. Second-year pharmacy (P2) students were randomly assigned to a student or faculty facilitator for a four-hour, small-group practice of MI skills. MI skills were assessed in a simulated patient encounter with the mMITI (modified Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity) tool. Students completed a pre-post, 6-point, Likert-type assessment addressing the research objectives. Differences were assessed using a Mann-Whitney U test. Results. Student (N=44) post-test attitudes, confidence, perceived or actual competence, and evaluations of facilitator performance were not different for faculty- and student-facilitated groups. Conclusion. Using pharmacy students as small-group facilitators did not affect student performance and were viewed as equally favorable. Using pharmacy students as facilitators can lessen faculty workload and provide an outlet for students to develop communication and facilitation skills that will be needed in future practice.

Exploring the Requisite Skills and Competencies of Pharmacists Needed for Success in an Evolving Health Care Environment

Objective. To identify and describe the core competencies and skills considered essential for success of pharmacists in today's rapidly evolving health care environment. Methods. Six breakout groups of 15-20 preceptors, pharmacists, and partners engaged in a facilitated discussion about the qualities and characteristics relevant to the success of a pharmacy graduate. Data were analyzed using qualitative methods. Peer-debriefing, multiple coders, and member-checking were used to promote trustworthiness of findings. Results. Eight overarching themes were identified: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration across networks and leading by influence; agility and adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism; effective oral and written communication; accessing and analyzing information; curiosity and imagination; and self-awareness. Conclusion. This study is an important step toward understanding how to best prepare pharmacy students for the emerging health care needs of society.

Pharmacist perceptions of competency: Identifying priority areas for a competency program development at an academic medical center

BACKGROUND

Competency-based education models can serve as valuable resources for providing quality continuing education and professional development in healthcare. However, competency development programs can be stifled by scarce stakeholder involvement and insufficient recognition of resource challenges. Engaging pharmacists in program development can inform program design and prioritization of needs.

OBJECTIVE

To describe a process to assess pharmacist perceptions about competency development and to inform program design by identifying high priority topic areas based on perceived value, confidence in abilities, and frequency of use by pharmacists.

METHODS

Pharmacists at a large academic medical center were surveyed to examine opinions regarding competency development and identify perceived departmental value, personal confidence, and frequency of use for nine competency topic areas. Responses were aggregated to create scores for each of the three criteria related to the nine topics. Priority areas were topics with the highest relative scores in perceived value and frequency of use and lowest relative scores in confidence compared to the other areas.

RESULTS

Survey responses were collected from 105 pharmacists (78.9% response rate). A majority indicated that competency assessment is a shared responsibility between the organization and individual pharmacists. Therapeutic knowledge was identified as the competency requiring the most immediate attention as it was perceived to have the highest departmental value and highest frequency of use, yet participants indicated low confidence regarding the topic.

CONCLUSIONS

Competency development is a critical aspect of ensuring pharmacists are prepared for the rapidly evolving needs of the healthcare system. Organizations play an important role in identifying and developing pharmacist competencies aligned with institutional and individual needs. This study suggests that pharmacists and leaders at an academic medical center identified a shared responsibility for competency development. The process described here may provide a model for other medical centers with similar competency development needs.

Factors associated with students' perceptions of role modelling

OBJECTIVES

To determine which professional and humanistic attributes demonstrated by teachers in the health disciplines caused them to be perceived by students as positive or negative role models.

METHODS

Quantitative empirical data were gathered using a self-administered questionnaire by graduating students in medical, dentistry, and pharmacy schools at Kerman University of Medical Sciences. A total of 3 graduating cohorts, comprising about 220 students, were selected for this study. Surveys were distributed during January-March 2013.

RESULTS

In total, 183 students participated in the study. Altogether, students considered 504 and 473 academic staff as positive and negative role models (PRMs and NRMs), respectively. Women were considered more negatively than men (mean scores: -12.13 vs. -11.6, p=0.04). While clinicians were considered more positively than basic scientists (mean scores: 12.65 vs. 10.67, p=0.001), dentists received higher positive scores than physicians or pharmacists (average scores: 13.27 vs. 12.99 and 9.82). There was a significant relationship between the personality of the students and the overall characteristics of their perceived role models (β for PRMs=0.35, p<0.0001; and β for NRMs= 0.20, p= 0.039).

CONCLUSIONS

Humanistic and professional attributes were proposed as major components of personal traits in perceived role models. Demonstration of humanistic attributes by teachers was strongly correlated with the students' perception of the role models. It is suggested that the role of humanistic and professional attributes should be highlighted across medical disciplines in an effort to develop or improve role modelling by academic staff.

Challenges to clinical pharmacy practice in Nigerian hospitals: a qualitative exploration of stakeholders' views

RATIONALE, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

In Nigeria, a shift from the traditional pharmacists' role of dispensing and compounding of medications began in the 1980s with the introduction of drug information services and unit dose-dispensing systems in some hospitals. More than three decades after this, clinical pharmacy practice is still underdeveloped. This study was conducted to explore stakeholders' views on the barriers to the development of clinical pharmacy practice in Nigerian hospitals.

METHODS

Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 44 purposefully sampled Nigerian stakeholders including pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, doctors, policymakers and patient group representatives. Transcribed interviews were entered into the QSR (Burlington, MA, USA) NVivo 10 software and analysed thematically.

RESULTS

Three major themes emerged from the study: pharmacists' professional identity, the structure of pharmacy practice and external barriers. The results revealed an ongoing struggle by Nigerian hospital pharmacists to establish their clinical identities as many non-pharmacy stakeholders viewed pharmacists' roles to be mainly supply based. Barriers to the development of clinical pharmacy practice identified included pharmacists' lack of confidence, shortage of pharmacy staff, underutilisation of pharmacy technicians, lack of specialisation and clinical career structure, medical dominance and opposition and lack of policies that support clinical pharmacy practice.

CONCLUSION

Several years after its introduction, clinical pharmacy practice is yet to be fully developed in Nigerian hospitals. The barriers identified in this study need to be addressed in order for clinical pharmacy practice to flourish.

Community pharmacists as educators in Danish residential facilities: a qualitative study

Objectives

To explore experiences with engaging community pharmacists in educational programmes on quality and safety in medication handling in residential facilities for the disabled.

Methods

A secondary analysis of data from two Danish intervention studies where community pharmacists were engaged in educational programmes. Data included 10 semi-structured interviews with staff, five semi-structured interviews and three open-ended questionnaires with residential facility managers, and five open-ended questionnaires to community pharmacists. Data were thematically coded to identify key points pertaining to the themes ‘pharmacists as educators' and ‘perceived effects of engaging pharmacists in competence development'.

Key findings

As educators, pharmacists were successful as medicines experts. Some pharmacists experienced pedagogical challenges. Previous teaching experience and obtained knowledge of the local residential facility before teaching often provided sufficient pedagogical skills and tailored teaching to local needs. Effects of engaging community pharmacists included in most instances improved cooperation between residential facilities and community pharmacies through a trustful relationship and improved dialogue about the residents' medication. Other effects included a perception of improved patient safety, teaching skills and branding of the pharmacy.

Conclusions

Community pharmacists provide a resource to engage in educational programmes on medication handling in residential facilities, which may facilitate improved cooperation between community pharmacies and residential facilities. However, development of pedagogical competences and understandings of local settings are prerequisites for facilities and pharmacists to experience the programmes as successful.

Incorporating a Weight Management Skills Workshop in Pharmacy Curricula in Australia

Objective. To develop, implement, and evaluate a competency-based weight management skills workshop for undergraduate pharmacy students in an Australian university. Design. A 3-hour workshop titled "Weight Management in Pharmacy" was implemented with a cohort of fourth-year undergraduate pharmacy students (n=180). Learning activities used included case-based learning, hands-on experience, role-play, and group discussion. Assessment. A 22-item attitudinal survey instrument and the validated Obesity Risk Knowledge (ORK-10) scale were administered at baseline and postworkshop to evaluate the impact of this educational workshop. There was significant improvement in the students' ORK scores and students' perceived level of self-confidence in performing weight management skills. Conclusion. An educational workshop designed to enhance professional competencies in weight management ensured graduates were "service-ready" and had the appropriate knowledge, skills, and attributes to deliver patient-centered pharmacy-based weight management services.

Competency-based pharmacy education in the Eastern Mediterranean Region-A scoping review

BACKGROUND

The International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Global Competency Framework (GbCF) was developed as a mapping tool to provide guidance for foundation level pharmacy practice and professional development. The Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) with a deep rooted pharmacy history is yet to adopt an explicit competency framework.

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature for evidence of competency-based pharmacy education in the EMR, including pharmacists' and pharmacy students' perceptions of knowledge and skills acquired during training at undergraduate, post-graduate, and life-long learning levels.

METHODS

Six electronic databases were searched for articles published between 1990 and 2014. Titles and abstracts were screened according to the inclusion criteria. Full articles identified for inclusion were assessed and mapped to a relevant domain of the GbCF.

RESULTS

Totally, 57 studies met the inclusion criteria. The majority of studies portrayed pharmacists' and pharmacy students' opinions regarding educational aspects of their experiences. Participants generally cited the need for more practice-based training, modernization of curriculum, continuing pharmacist education and greater involvement in public health promotion, and research to strengthen professional competency. Interventional studies-enhanced knowledge and skills after training was provided to pharmacists and pharmacy students. No studies pertaining to the organization and management domain of the GbCF were found.

CONCLUSION

Despite paucity of studies that specifically investigated aspects of competency-based pharmacy education in the EMR, results provided impressions of what participants perceived as beneficial, or lacking in their education to attain certain competencies. Results point toward the need to implement a competency framework specific to the EMR.

Health workforce governance: Processes, tools and actors towards a competent workforce for integrated health services delivery

A competent health workforce is a vital resource for health services delivery, dictating the extent to which services are capable of responding to health needs. In the context of the changing health landscape, an integrated approach to service provision has taken precedence. For this, strengthening health workforce competencies is an imperative, and doing so in practice hinges on the oversight and steering function of governance. To aid health system stewards in their governing role, this review seeks to provide an overview of processes, tools and actors for strengthening health workforce competencies. It draws from a purposive and multidisciplinary review of literature, expert opinion and country initiatives across the WHO European Region's 53 Member States. Through our analysis, we observe distinct yet complementary roles can be differentiated between health services delivery and the health system. This understanding is a necessary prerequisite to gain deeper insight into the specificities for strengthening health workforce competencies in order for governance to rightly create the institutional environment called for to foster alignment. Differentiating between the contribution of health services and the health system in the strengthening of health workforce competencies is an important distinction for achieving and sustaining health improvement goals.

Enhanced responsibilities for pharmacy interns at a teaching hospital

OBJECTIVE

To describe the implementation of a pharmacy intern distribution coordinator position and its impact on the intern's professional development.

SETTING

Tertiary academic medical center.

PRACTICE DESCRIPTION

In 2009, our institution implemented a pharmacy intern distribution coordinator position, which was previously staffed by a pharmacist. Interns, who are in their first through fourth professional year, take the lead in the medication distribution process while under the direct supervision of a pharmacist. The intern adjudicates the medication distribution process by ensuring proper processing, filling and timely delivery of the medications, as well as triaging inventory issues and maintaining open communication with the pharmacists about any medication issues. Additionally, the intern can make clinical interventions during the various checkpoints in the final verification process and answer drug information questions for fellow medical professionals.

PRACTICE INNOVATION

Pharmacy intern resources and development are maximized via staffing in a medication distribution coordinator position previously staffed by a pharmacist. By adapting to the role of pharmacist early on in one's career, pharmacy interns are provided with a valuable opportunity to grow professionally. The position can foster the development of pharmacotherapy knowledge, communication skills, leadership experience, time management, and critical thinking by allowing pharmacy interns to practice at the top of their licensure.

CONCLUSION

Our pharmacy intern distribution coordinator position provides interns with a professional development opportunity by assuming enhanced roles and responsibilities in a hospital pharmacy department. The expansion of the pharmacy intern's role can increase pharmacy department resources and provide a valuable platform for their development. Institutions should seek to maximize the opportunities for pharmacy interns to work at the peak of their licensure.

A Novel Education and Training Program to Enhance Student Advocacy

Objective. To develop and implement a unique student advocacy program to train student pharmacists to be effective advocates for the profession of pharmacy and the patients it serves. Design. The Academy is a 2-day program hosted annually in Washington, DC, that combines didactic presentations on the legislative process, communication with policymakers, current legislation, and active-learning exercises such as mock congressional visits. The Academy culminates with visits to Capitol Hill where students meet with legislators and their staff to discuss pending legislation. Assessment. Nearly 350 students from 43 schools and colleges of pharmacy completed the program in its 4 years. Students are assessed following the active-learning exercises and meetings with legislators. Conclusion. Advocacy has been listed as a competency that requires more attention in pharmacy education. The Academy provides a model that schools may replicate to enhance their advocacy offerings.

Does self-reflection and peer-assessment improve Saudi pharmacy students' academic performance and metacognitive skills?

BACKGROUND

The patient-centered focus of clinical pharmacy practice which demands nuanced application of specialized knowledge and skills targeted to meeting patient-specific therapeutic needs warrant that the training strategy used for PharmD graduates must empower with the ability to use the higher level cognitive processes and critical thinking effectively in service delivery. However, the historical disposition to learning in the Middle East and among Saudi students appeared heavily focused on rote memorization and recall of memorized facts.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the impact of active pedagogic strategies such as self-reflection and peer assessment on pharmacy students' academic performance and metacognitive skills, and evaluate students' feedback on the impact of these active pedagogic strategies on their overall learning experience.

METHOD

An exploratory prospective cohort study was conducted among 4th year students at the College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia to assess the impact of self-reflection and peer-assessment in a semester-wide assessment tasks in two compulsory first semester 4th year courses (Therapeutics-3 and Pharmacoeconomics). An end-of-course evaluation survey with a pre-tested 5-item open-ended questionnaire was also conducted to evaluate students' feedback on the impact of active pedagogic strategies on their overall learning experience.

RESULT

Male students (study group) constituted 40.7% of the cohort while 59.3% were females (control group) with mean ± SD age of 23.2 ± 5.6 and 22.1 ± 4.9 years respectively. The mean ± SD scores for quizzes, mid-term and final exams, and the overall percentage pass were significantly higher in the study group for both courses (P < 0.001). The majority of the students in the study group opined that the exposure to active pedagogic strategies enabled them to improve their use of critical thinking, facilitated deeper engagement with their learning and improved their clinical decision-making and discussion skills.

CONCLUSION

The use of active pedagogic strategies such as self-reflection and peer-assessment appeared to significantly improve examination performance, facilitate deep and constructive engagement with learning and fostered students' confidence in the use of critical thinking and clinical decision-making.

A scenario-planning approach to human resources for health: the case of community pharmacists in Portugal

BACKGROUND

Health workforce planning is especially important in a setting of political, social, and economic uncertainty. Portuguese community pharmacists are experiencing such conditions as well as increasing patient empowerment, shortage of primary care physicians, and primary health care reforms. This study aims to design three future scenarios for Portuguese community pharmacists, recognizing the changing environment as an opportunity to develop the role that community pharmacists may play in the Portuguese health system.

METHODS

The community pharmacist scenario design followed a three-stage approach. The first stage comprised thinking of relevant questions to be addressed and definition of the scenarios horizon. The second stage comprised two face-to-face, scenario-building workshops, for which 10 experts from practice and academic settings were invited. Academic and professional experience was the main selection criteria. The first workshop was meant for context analysis and design of draft scenarios, while the second was aimed at scenario analysis and validation. The final scenarios were built merging workshops' information with data collected from scientific literature followed by team consensus. The final stage involved scenario development carried by the authors alone, developing the narratives behind each scenario.

RESULTS

Analysis allowed the identification of critical factors expected to have particular influence in 2020 for Portuguese community pharmacists, leading to two critical uncertainties: the "Legislative environment" and "Ability to innovate and develop services". Three final scenarios were built, namely "Pharmacy-Mall", "e-Pharmacist", and "Reorganize or Die". These scenarios provide possible trends for market needs, pharmacist workforce numbers, and expected qualifications to be developed by future professionals.

CONCLUSIONS

In all scenarios it is clear that the future advance of Portuguese community pharmacists will depend on pharmaceutical services provision beyond medicine dispensing. This innovative professional role will require the acquisition or development of competencies in the fields of management, leadership, marketing, information technologies, teamwork abilities, and behavioural and communication skills. To accomplish a sustainable evolution, legislative changes and adequate financial incentives will be beneficial. The scenario development proves to be valuable as a strategic planning tool, not only for understanding future community pharmacist needs in a complex and uncertain environment, but also for other health care professionals.

Views of pharmacists on involvement in ward rounds in selected public hospitals in Limpopo Province

Background: Pharmacist participation in ward rounds is of increasing interest for better pharmaceutical care, yet most pharmacists do not engage in this activity.Objective: The objective was to obtain public sector pharmacists’ views and perceptions on their involvement in ward rounds.Method: A rapid assessment was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire sent to five hospitals in Limpopo Province.Results: There were 55 respondents (61.8% female), mainly from the Polokwane-Mankweng Hospital Complex (69.1%); 45 (82%) were young pharmacists aged 25 to 34, whilst experience varied from 0 ≤ 5 years (69.1%), 5 ≤ 10 years (16.4%) to > 10 years (14.5%). The respondents included interns (n = 21), community service pharmacists (n = 7) and junior pharmacists (n = 8). Most had trained at University of Limpopo (n = 49), with a few from North-West University (n = 4), Wits (n = 1) and Durban–Westville (n = 1). The majority (94.5%) felt that it was necessary for pharmacists to be involved in ward rounds. Twenty-seven respondents (49.1%) said that pharmacists were involved in ward rounds and 21 of these (77.8%) said ward visits were to check on drug stocks, but not for direct patient care. Proposals to prepare pharmacists better for ward rounds included pre-service training (34.9%), internship (37.2%), community service (4.7%), post-graduate courses (8.1%) and continuing professional development (15.1%).Conclusion: Pharmacists in the public hospitals studied in Limpopo were willing to be involved in clinical ward rounds and suggested that this be introduced during undergraduate training. These findings support the plans for the Turfloop BPharm programme to introduce clinical ward rounds. Agtergrond: Die teenwoordigheid van aptekers tydens saalrondtes is van toenemende belang vir beter farmaseutiese sorg, maar baie aptekers is nie betrokke by by hierdie aktiwiteit nie.Doelstelling: Die doel van die studie was om die menings en persepsies van aptekers in die openbare sektor te verkry oor hulle betrokkenheid by saalrondtes.Metode: ’n Vinnige assessering was gedoen met behulp van ’n semi-gestruktureerde vraelys wat na vyf hospitale in Limpopo gestuur is.Resultate: Daar het 55 respondente aan die studie deelgeneem (61.8% vroue). Die meerderheid was van die Polokwane-Mankweng hospitaalkompleks (69.1%). Daar was 45 (82%) jong aptekers tussen die ouderdomme van 25 en 34, terwyl ervaring gewissel het van 0 tot 5 jaar (69.1%), 6 tot 10 jaar (16.4%), tot 10 jaar of meer (14.5%). Die respondente het die volgende ingesluit: interns (n = 21), gemeenskapsdiensaptekers (n = 7) en junior aptekers (n = 8). Die meeste het hul tersiêre opleiding aan die Universiteit van Limpopo verkry (n = 49), met ’n paar van die Noord-Wes Universiteit (n= 4), Wits (n = 1) en Durban-Westville (n = 1). Die meerderheid (94.5%) het gevoel dat dit wel nodig is vir aptekers om in saalrondtes betrokke te wees. ’n Totaal van 27 respondente (49.1%) het aangedui dat aptekers betrokke is by saalrondtes, maar 21 uit die 27 (77.8%) het saalbesoek omskryf as die nagaan van saalvoorraad en nie direkte pasiëntesorg nie. Voorstelle om aptekers beter voor te berei vir saalrondtes het die volgende ingesluit: pre-diens opleiding (34.9%), internskap (37.2%), gemeenskapsdiens (4.7%), nagraadse kursusse (8.1%), en deur middel van voortgesette professionele ontwikkeling (15.1%).Gevolgtrekkings: Aptekers in die openbare hospitale bestudeer in Limpopo was bereid om in die kliniese saalrondtes betrokke te wees en het voorgestel dat dit tydens voorgraadse opleiding ingestel word. Hierdie bevindings ondersteun die planne vir die Turfloop BPharm program om kliniese saalrondtes in te stel.

Point-of-care screenings at the University of Minnesota: mechanism for civic engagement

OBJECTIVES To describe Wellness Initiative of the Northland (WIN) screening events; present participant results from those events; discuss the benefits of pharmacist-conducted, community-based point-of-care (POC) testing to medically underserved patients and to the profession of pharmacy; and describe logistical considerations in launching disease screening services. SETTING Pharmacist-led community health fairs in a variety of settings, including shopping malls, churches, community pharmacies, senior residence facilities, critical-access hospitals, and clinics. PRACTICE DESCRIPTION Disease screenings for economically disadvantaged residents of northeastern Minnesota and northwest Wisconsin, held between 2005 and 2012, through WIN. PRACTICE INNOVATION Mobile POC screenings for dyslipidemia, diabetes, hypertension, and osteoporosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Percentage of screenings with out-of-range readings. RESULTS Since 2005, WIN screenings have served more than 2,000 individuals, providing 4,152 POC screenings. Out-of-range readings were obtained for 40.3% of fingerstick cholesterol tests, 24.8% of fingerstick blood glucose tests, 24.3% of blood pressure tests, and 38.7% of quantitative ultrasound heel bone density readings. CONCLUSION Community-conducted POC testing functions both as an important public health service and a mechanism by which pharmacists and student pharmacists can become involved in civic engagement.