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Kim J, Dwivedi G, Boughton BA, Sharma A, Lee S. Advances in cellular and tissue-based imaging techniques for sarcoid granulomas. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 326:C10-C26. [PMID: 37955119 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00507.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Sarcoidosis embodies a complex inflammatory disorder spanning multiple systems, with its origin remaining elusive. It manifests as the infiltration of inflammatory cells that coalesce into distinctive noncaseous granulomas within afflicted organs. Unraveling this disease necessitates the utilization of cellular or tissue-based imaging methods to both visualize and characterize the biochemistry of these sarcoid granulomas. Although hematoxylin and eosin stain, standard in routine use alongside cytological stains have found utility in diagnosis within clinical contexts, special stains such as Masson's trichrome, reticulin, methenamine silver, and Ziehl-Neelsen provide additional varied perspectives of sarcoid granuloma imaging. Immunohistochemistry aids in pinpointing specific proteins and gene expressions further characterizing these granulomas. Finally, recent advances in spatial transcriptomics promise to divulge profound insights into their spatial orientation and three-dimensional (3-D) molecular mapping. This review focuses on a range of preexisting imaging methods employed for visualizing sarcoid granulomas at the cellular level while also exploring the potential of the latest cutting-edge approaches like spatial transcriptomics and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI), with the overarching goal of shedding light on the trajectory of sarcoidosis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junwoo Kim
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Girish Dwivedi
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- Department of Cardiology, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Berin A Boughton
- Australian National Phenome Centre, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Ankur Sharma
- Onco-Fetal Ecosystem Laboratory, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Silvia Lee
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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Kim J, Lee S, Moodley Y, Yagnik L, Birnie D, Dwivedi G. The role of the host-microbiome and metabolomics in sarcoidosis. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2023; 325:C1336-C1353. [PMID: 37746695 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00316.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Sarcoidosis is a complex inflammatory fibrotic disease that affects multiple organ systems. It is characterized by the infiltration of lymphocytes and mononuclear phagocytes, which form non-caseating granulomas in affected organs. The lungs and intrathoracic lymph nodes are the most commonly affected organs. The underlying cause of sarcoidosis is unknown, but it is believed to occur in genetically predisposed individuals who are exposed to pathogenic organisms, environmental contaminants, or self and non-self-antigens. Recent research has suggested that the microbiome may play a role in the development of respiratory conditions, including sarcoidosis. Additionally, metabolomic studies have identified potential biomarkers for monitoring sarcoidosis progression. This review will focus on recent microbiome and metabolomic findings in sarcoidosis, with the goal of shedding light on the pathogenesis and possible diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junwoo Kim
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Silvia Lee
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Yuben Moodley
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Internal Medicine, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Lokesh Yagnik
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Internal Medicine, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - David Birnie
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Girish Dwivedi
- Department of Advanced Clinical and Translational Cardiovascular Imaging, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Cardiology, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
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Kishore A, Sikorova K, Kocourkova L, Petrkova J, Doubkova M, Jakubec P, Rębała K, Dubaniewicz A, Petrek M. Evaluation of genetic risk, its clinical manifestation and disease management based on 18 susceptibility gene markers among West-Slavonic patients with sarcoidosis. Gene 2023:147577. [PMID: 37336276 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Sarcoidosis is a heterogenous, multisystemic inflammatory disease that primarily affects lungs. In this study, we multiplex genotyped 18 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to replicate the findings from previous genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and candidate gene studies, and extended analyses to different clinical manifestations (Lofgren syndrome and chest X-ray [CXR] stages) including treatment response among West-Slavonic subjects (564 sarcoidosis patients and 301 healthy controls). We confirm the replication (with Bonferroni correction) of ANXA11 rs1049550 as protective variant for sarcoidosis (odds ratio [OR]=0.71, p=1.33×10-3), non-LS (OR=0.66, p=2.71×10-4) and CXR stages 2-4 (OR=0.62, p=7.48×10-5) compared to controls in West-Slavonic population. We also validate the association of risk variants C6orf10 rs3129927 (OR=2.61, p=2.60×10-8), TNFA rs1800629 (OR=1.56, p=6.65×10-4), ATF6B rs3130288 (OR=2.75, p=1.06×10-9) and HLA-DQA1 rs2187668 (OR=1.74, p=8.83×10-4) with sarcoidosis compared to controls. For sub-phenotypes compared to controls, risk variants C6orf10 rs3129927 (OR=5.35, p=1.07×10-12), TNFA rs1800629 (OR=2.66, p=5.94×10-7), ATF6B rs3130288 (OR=5.24, p=5.21×10-13), LRRC16A rs9295661 (OR=2.97, p=4.29×10-4), HLA-DQA1 rs2187668 (OR=3.14, p=1.09×10-6) and HLA-DRA rs3135394 (OR=5.23, p=8.25×10-13) were associated with LS while C6orf10 rs3129927 (OR=1.96, p=4.27×10-4) and ATF6B rs3130288 (OR=2.15, p=3.36×10-5) were associated with non-LS. For CXR stages compared to controls, C6orf10 rs3129927 (OR=3.67, p=3.63×10-11), TNFA rs1800629 (OR=1.84, p=1.32×10-4), ATF6B rs3129927 (OR=3.63, p=1.82×10-11), HLA-DQA1 rs2187668 (OR=2.13, p=9.59×10-5) and HLA-DRA rs3135394 (OR=3.42, p=3.45×10-10) were risk variants for early CXR stages 0-1 while C6orf10 rs3129927 (OR=1.99, p=5.51×10-4), ATF6B rs3129927 (OR=2.23, p=3.52×10-5) and HLA-DRA rs3135394 (OR=1.85, p=2.00×10-3) were risk variants for advanced CXR stages 2-4. The present findings nominate gene variants as plausible prognostic markers for clinical phenotypes, treatment response and disease resolution/progression and may form the basis for establishing genotype-phenotype relationships in patients with sarcoidosis among West-Slavonic population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kishore
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic; AccuScript Consultancy, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
| | - Katerina Sikorova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Kocourkova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic; Laboratory of Cardiogenomics LEM, University Hospital Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Petrkova
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic; Laboratory of Cardiogenomics LEM, University Hospital Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Doubkova
- Department of Pulmonary Diseases and Tuberculosis, Masaryk University and University Hospital Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Jakubec
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University and University Hospital Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Krzysztof Rębała
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Anna Dubaniewicz
- Department of Pulmonology, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Martin Petrek
- Department of Pathological Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Zhao M, Tian C, Di X, Cong S, Cao Y, Zhou X, Wang K. Systematic and Comprehensive Analysis of tRNA-Derived Small RNAs Reveals Their Potential Regulatory Roles and Clinical Relevance in Sarcoidosis. J Inflamm Res 2023; 16:2357-2374. [PMID: 37284703 PMCID: PMC10241215 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s406484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The pathogenesis of sarcoidosis, which involves several systems, is unclear, and its pathological type is non-caseating epithelioid granulomas. tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA) is a novel class of short non-coding RNAs with potential regulatory functions. However, whether tsRNA contributes to sarcoidosis pathogenesis remains unclear. Methods Deep sequencing technology was used to identify alterations in tsRNA relative abundance profiles between patients with sarcoidosis and healthy controls and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to validate. The clinical parameters were analysis to evaluate the clinical feature correlations initially. Target prediction and bioinformatics analysis of validated tsRNA were conducted to explore the mechanisms of tsRNAs in sarcoidosis pathogenesis. Results A total of 360 tsRNAs were identified for exact matches. Among them, the relative abundance of three tRNAs (tiRNA-Glu-TTC-001, tiRNA-Lys-CTT-003, and tRF-Ser-TGA-007) was markedly regulated in sarcoidosis. The levels of various tsRNAs were significantly correlated with age, the number of affected systems, and calcium levels in the blood. Additionally, target prediction and bioinformatics analyses revealed that these tsRNAs may play roles in chemokine, cAMP, cGMP-PKG, retrograde endorphin, and FoxO signalling pathways. The related genes, APP, PRKACB, ARRB2, and NR5A1 finding may participate in the occurrence and development of sarcoidosis through immune inflammation. Conclusion This study provides novel insights to explore tsRNA as a novel and efficacious pathogenic target of sarcoidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhao
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chang Tian
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xin Di
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shan Cong
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yingshu Cao
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xijia Zhou
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ke Wang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, People’s Republic of China
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Huang S, Juniat V, Satchi K, Cohen LM, Davis G, Rootman DB, McNab A, Selva D. Bilateral lacrimal gland disease: clinical features and outcomes. Eye (Lond) 2022; 36:2163-2171. [PMID: 34725471 PMCID: PMC9582005 DOI: 10.1038/s41433-021-01819-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with bilateral lacrimal gland disease are a unique subset of patients where there is a paucity of literature. This presentation often represents systemic disease or malignancy and can cause diagnostic difficulties. We aim to describe the diagnoses and features of bilateral lacrimal gland disease. METHOD Retrospective multi-centre case series involving 115 patients with bilateral lacrimal gland disease from 1995 to 2020. RESULTS 115 patients were included. Their ages ranged from 9 to 85 (mean 47.3 years) with a female predominance (73, 63.5%). The most common category of diagnosis was inflammatory (69, 60%) followed by lymphoproliferative (23, 20%), structural (17, 14.8%) and other conditions (6, 5.2%). The five most common specific diagnoses were IgG4 related disease (20, 17.4%) and idiopathic orbital inflammatory disease (20, 17.4%), lymphoma (16, 13.9%), lacrimal gland prolapse (13, 11.3%), and sarcoidosis (11, 9.6%). Corticosteroid treatment was used most commonly (29, 25.2%) followed by observation (25, 21.7%). At last follow up, the majority of patients had complete resolution, significant improvement with mild residual disease or stable disease without further progression (104, 90.4%). CONCLUSION Bilateral lacrimal disease may be due to a range of aetiologies, most of which are systemic. The most common are inflammatory and lymphoproliferative conditions. Due to the wide range of aetiologies of bilateral lacrimal gland disease, it is extremely difficult to accurately determine a cause based on clinical findings alone, highlighting the vital role of lacrimal gland biopsy in patients presenting with bilateral lacrimal gland disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Huang
- South Australian Institute of Ophthalmology, The University of Adelaide and The Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
| | - Valerie Juniat
- South Australian Institute of Ophthalmology, The University of Adelaide and The Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Khami Satchi
- Orbital Plastics and Lacrimal Unit, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Liza M Cohen
- Division of Orbital and Ophthalmic Plastic Surgery, Stein and Doheny Eye Institutes, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Garry Davis
- South Australian Institute of Ophthalmology, The University of Adelaide and The Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Daniel B Rootman
- Division of Orbital and Ophthalmic Plastic Surgery, Stein and Doheny Eye Institutes, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alan McNab
- Orbital Plastics and Lacrimal Unit, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- University of Melbourne, Centre for Eye Research Australia Ltd, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Dinesh Selva
- South Australian Institute of Ophthalmology, The University of Adelaide and The Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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Ganesan N, Ronsmans S, Vanoirbeek J, Hoet PHM. Assessment of Experimental Techniques That Facilitate Human Granuloma Formation in an In Vitro System: A Systematic Review. Cells 2022; 11:cells11050864. [PMID: 35269486 PMCID: PMC8909410 DOI: 10.3390/cells11050864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of granuloma formation is complex, and due to species differences, the validity of animal studies is somewhat questioned. Moreover, the large number of animals needed to observe the different stages of development also raises ethical questions. Therefore, researchers have explored the use of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), a heterogeneous population of immune cells, in an in vitro model. This review included in vitro studies that focused on exposing PBMCs—from healthy, sensitized, or diseased individuals—to antigens derived from infectious agents—such as mycobacteria or Schistosoma spp.—or inorganic antigens—such as beryllium. The reviewed studies mainly explored how human in vitro granuloma models can contribute towards understanding the pathogenesis of granulomatous diseases, especially during the early stages of granuloma formation. The feasibility of granuloma modelling was thus largely assessed via experimental techniques including (1) granuloma scoring indices (GI), (2) cell surface markers and (3) cytokine secretion profiling. While granuloma scoring showed some similarities between studies, a large variability of culture conditions and endpoints measured have been identified. The lack of any standardization currently impedes the success of a human in vitro granuloma model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirosha Ganesan
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (N.G.); (J.V.)
| | - Steven Ronsmans
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Jeroen Vanoirbeek
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (N.G.); (J.V.)
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Peter H. M. Hoet
- Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases and Thoracic Surgery (BREATHE), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium; (N.G.); (J.V.)
- Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium;
- Correspondence:
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Urrego-Callejas T, Sandoval-Álvarez S, Gómez-Wolff R, Vásquez G. Cutaneous and Pulmonary Sarcoid-Like Reaction Induced by Nivolumab: Case Report and Brief Literature Review. J Clin Rheumatol 2021; 27:S460-S464. [PMID: 31895111 DOI: 10.1097/rhu.0000000000001227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Pham JP, Star P, Phan K, Loh Y, Joshua AM, Smith A. Review BRAF inhibition and the spectrum of granulomatous reactions. J Am Acad Dermatol 2021; 87:605-613. [PMID: 34715287 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2021.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BRAF-inhibitors have emerged as a promising targeted therapy for malignancies with BRAF mutations, particularly metastatic melanoma. However, granulomatous reactions including sarcoidosis and sarcoid-like-reactions have been reported as a consequence of BRAF-inhibition. It is important to adequately characterise these granulomatous reactions including cutaneous manifestations and systemic involvement, in order to guide investigations and management. A literature review was conducted to characterise the spectrum of granulomatous reactions associated with BRAF-inhibitors - identifying 55 reactions affecting 51 patients, with 37 reactions limited to cutaneous involvement. Further, possible correlation with cancer response, mechanisms of granuloma formation, as well as a proposed workup and management approach for these granulomatous reactions are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Pham
- St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Phoebe Star
- St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Kevin Phan
- Department of Dermatology, Liverpool Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yanni Loh
- St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Anthony M Joshua
- St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia; St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Melanoma Institute of Australia, North Sydney, NSW, Australia; Medical Oncology, The Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Annika Smith
- St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Melanoma Institute of Australia, North Sydney, NSW, Australia; The Mater Hospital, North Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Akram MJ, Khalid U, Abu Bakar M, Butt FM, Ashraf MB. Sarcoidosis: epidemiology, characteristics, and outcomes over 10 years - a single-center study in Pakistan. Expert Rev Respir Med 2021; 16:133-143. [PMID: 34402372 DOI: 10.1080/17476348.2021.1924062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Background: Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous inflammatory disease which remains under-diagnosed in a tuberculosis endemic region such as Pakistan.Rationale: To determine the distribution, clinical characteristics, diagnostic and treatment modalities and the disease course in the Pakistani population.Methods: A cross-sectional review of sarcoidosis patients from Jan-1,2010 to Dec-31,2019 was done. Multivariable logistic and cox-regression models were used to identify the independent risk-factors associated with disease relapse. Kaplan-Meier curves were used to assess the DFS.Results: 222 patients, with mean age 44 ± 12 years, predominantly females (57.7%) and mean BMI 29 ± 6 were diagnosed sarcoidosis. Significant co-morbidities affected 36.5%, 90% were nonsmokers, and 50.3% belonged to moderate SES. Total 178 (80.2%) were symptomatic with 115 (51.8%) having multi-organ involvement. Stage-I radiological disease was predominant (52.5%). Histopathological diagnosis was obtained in 161 (72.5%) patients. Out of 113 mediastinal lymph-nodes, NNGI was present in 99, with highest yield in Station-07 (68.6%). Treatment was instituted in 108/178 (60.7%) symptomatic patients with steroids alone and in 26 (14.6%) with S+IS, with better clinical and radiological response duration in patients receiving steroid monotherapy (p-values=0.01 and 0.001,respectively, along with overall higher survival time (p-value = 0.04). Risk factors identified for relapse included high SES (AOR5.52;95%CI(1.10-28.40),0.04), steroid monotherapy (AOR0.22; 95%CI(0.10-0.87),0.03), symptomatic response after one year (AOR3.40; 95%CI(1.02-11.10),0.04), and radiological response duration (AOR1.10; 95%CI(1.05-1.20),0.04).Conclusion: Sarcoidosis is a dynamic disease with a variable clinical and geographical spectrum but good overall prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Junaid Akram
- Department of Internal Medicine, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Usman Khalid
- Department of Internal Medicine, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Abu Bakar
- Department of Cancer Registry and Clinical Data Management, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Faheem Mahmood Butt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Mohammad Bilal Ashraf
- Pulmonology & Critical Care Medicine, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center, Lahore, Pakistan
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Mousapasandi A, Herbert C, Thomas P. Potential use of biomarkers for the clinical evaluation of sarcoidosis. J Investig Med 2021; 69:jim-2020-001659. [PMID: 33452128 DOI: 10.1136/jim-2020-001659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sarcoidosis is a systemic granulomatous disease of unknown etiology and pathogenesis with a heterogeneous clinical presentation. In the appropriate clinical and radiological context and with the exclusion of other diagnoses, the disease is characterized by the pathological presence of non-caseating epithelioid cell granulomas. Sarcoidosis is postulated to be a multifactorial disease caused by chronic antigenic stimulation. The immunopathogenesis of sarcoidosis encompasses a complex interaction between the host, genetic factors and postulated environmental and infectious triggers, which result in granuloma development.The exact pathogenesis of the disease has yet to be elucidated, but some of the inflammatory pathways that play a key role in disease progression and outcomes are becoming apparent, and these may form the logical basis for selecting potential biomarkers.Biomarkers are biological molecules that are altered pathologically. To date, there exists no single reliable biomarker for the evaluation of sarcoidosis, either diagnostically or prognostically but new candidates are emerging. A diagnosis of sarcoidosis ideally requires a biopsy confirming non-caseating granulomas, but the likelihood of progression that requires intervention remains unpredictable. These challenging aspects could be potentially resolved by incorporating biomarkers into clinical practice for both diagnosis and monitoring disease activity.This review outlines the current knowledge on sarcoidosis with an emphasis on pulmonary sarcoidosis, and delineates the understanding surrounding the implication of biomarkers for the clinical evaluation of sarcoidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Mousapasandi
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Cristan Herbert
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Paul Thomas
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Prince of Wales' Hospital and Prince of Wales' Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Abstract
Sarcoidosis is a systemic disease with a number of extrapulmonary manifestations, rarely limited to a single system. The objective of this review is to provide a overview of the systemic features of sarcoidosis and their surveillance. Sarcoidosis is disease that can affect any organ system, resulting in a number of complications that can cause significant morbidity and mortality, including ophthalmological and cardiac complications. A number of investigations play a role in identifying manifestations of sarcoidosis. Respiratory physicians have an important role to play in identifying complications and monitoring patients with sarcoidosis, as they may be the first to encounter them. Sarcoidosis can involve any organ system, with several complications, particularly ophthalmological and cardiac disease, that are important to recognise in clinical practice and monitor, no matter one's area of expertisehttps://bit.ly/36oLXxm
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Mannes
- Dept of Respiratory Medicine, Prince of Wales' Hospital, Sydney, Australia.,Prince of Wales' Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Paul S Thomas
- Dept of Respiratory Medicine, Prince of Wales' Hospital, Sydney, Australia.,Prince of Wales' Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.,Mechanisms of Disease and Translational Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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12
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KORKMAZ C, AKDAĞ T. Plasma levels of protachykinin-1 (TAC1) in patients with sarcoidosis. FAMILY PRACTICE AND PALLIATIVE CARE 2020. [DOI: 10.22391/fppc.779394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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13
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Mukai T, Fujiwara D, Miyake T, Fujita S, Morizane S, Morita Y. Tattoo skin reaction as a skin manifestation of systemic sarcoidosis. Mod Rheumatol Case Rep 2020; 5:167-171. [PMID: 32967569 DOI: 10.1080/24725625.2020.1816645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A 41-year-old man presented with itching of the skin surrounding his tattoos, blurred vision, fever, general fatigue, and arthralgia. Physical examination revealed skin bulges confined to the tattoo ink lines. Histological analyses of the skin revealed non-caseating granulomas surrounding the tattoo inks. Together with other clinical manifestations including uveitis, lymph nodes swelling, and elevated serum angiotensin-converting enzyme and lysozyme, he was diagnosed with systemic sarcoidosis. The administration of prednisolone alleviated the sarcoidosis-related symptoms, including skin changes. This case illustrates that skin changes on tattoos can be a presenting manifestation of systemic sarcoidosis and that skin biopsy is useful in early diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Mukai
- Department of Rheumatology, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, Japan.,Department of Internal Medicine, Fukuyama City Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Dan Fujiwara
- Department of Dermatology, Fukuyama City Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Tomoko Miyake
- Department of Ophthalmology, Fukuyama City Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Shunichi Fujita
- Department of Rheumatology, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shin Morizane
- Department of Dermatology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Morita
- Department of Rheumatology, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, Japan
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14
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Hu MK, Mathur A, Dempsey OJ. Pulmonary Sarcoidosis: A Clinical Update. J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2020; 50:322-329. [DOI: 10.4997/jrcpe.2020.324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcoidosis remains difficult to diagnose, assess and treat. The last decade has brought significant diagnostic and therapeutic advances in the field of sarcoidosis including endobronchial ultrasound, 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and biologics. In this article we use clinical vignettes to discuss commonly encountered cases to illustrate and explain the application of these, and other advances.
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Affiliation(s)
- May Khei Hu
- Academic Foundation Doctor, Department of Respiratory Medicine, Clinic C, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Abhinav Mathur
- Honorary Research Fellow, School of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Owen J Dempsey
- Consultant Respiratory Physician, Department of Respiratory Medicine, Clinic C, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, UK
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15
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Pretorius CJ, Ungerer JP. Assessing angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) protein is more appropriate than ACE activity when investigating sarcoidosis. Med J Aust 2020; 213:178-179. [PMID: 32442339 DOI: 10.5694/mja2.50620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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16
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Tajiri T, Hayashi H, Higashi T, Yamao T, Takematsu T, Uemura N, Yamamura K, Imai K, Yamashita YI, Baba H. Coexisting schwannoma of the gallbladder and sarcoidosis: a case report. Surg Case Rep 2020; 6:76. [PMID: 32307608 PMCID: PMC7167390 DOI: 10.1186/s40792-020-00839-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schwannomas originate from Schwann cells, which are constituents of peripheral nerve sheaths, and can occur anywhere in the body at any age. Most occur in soft tissues such as subcutaneous tissues and muscles, occurrence in the abdominal cavity being relatively rare. In particular, schwannomas of the gallbladder are extremely rare. We herein report a rare case of a schwannoma that coexisted with systemic sarcoidosis and presented as a steroid-resistant mass in the gallbladder wall. CASE PRESENTATION A 40-year-old woman was found to have thickening of the gallbladder wall during a routine medical examination and was referred to our hospital, where she was found to have granular shadows in the lungs; mediastinal, cervical, intraperitoneal, and inguinal lymphadenopathy; parotid gland enlargement; and an erythematous skin rash. She was diagnosed as having systemic sarcoidosis by transbronchial lung biopsy and bronchoalveolar lavage. All her systemic mass lesions except for the one in the gallbladder resolved or became smaller with steroid treatment. The steroid-resistant gallbladder lesion showed enhancement on contrast-enhanced computed tomography and was shown by endoscopic ultrasonography to be a 30-mm-diameter gallbladder wall lesion. We performed laparoscopic cholecystectomy, which resulted in diagnosis of the steroid-resistant tumor as a schwannoma. Five months after surgery, the patient's prednisolone dosage had been gradually reduced to 5 mg/day and she was doing well with no evidence of recurrence. CONCLUSION Resection of a steroid-resistant tumor resulted in diagnosis of schwannoma, enabling reduction in the patient's steroid dosage for sarcoidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Tajiri
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Hayashi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan.
| | - Takaaki Higashi
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Takanobu Yamao
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Toru Takematsu
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Norio Uemura
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Kensuke Yamamura
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Katsunori Imai
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Yo-Ichi Yamashita
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Hideo Baba
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
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17
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Sarcoidosis: Causes, Diagnosis, Clinical Features, and Treatments. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9041081. [PMID: 32290254 PMCID: PMC7230978 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9041081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 04/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disease with nonspecific clinical manifestations that commonly affects the pulmonary system and other organs including the eyes, skin, liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. Sarcoidosis usually presents with persistent dry cough, eye and skin manifestations, weight loss, fatigue, night sweats, and erythema nodosum. Sarcoidosis is not influenced by sex or age, although it is more common in adults (< 50 years) of African-American or Scandinavians decent. Diagnosis can be difficult because of nonspecific symptoms and can only be verified following histopathological examination. Various factors, including infection, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors, are involved in the pathology of sarcoidosis. Exposures to insecticides, herbicides, bioaerosols, and agricultural employment are also associated with an increased risk for sarcoidosis. Due to its unknown etiology, early diagnosis and detection are difficult; however, the advent of advanced technologies, such as endobronchial ultrasound-guided biopsy, high-resolution computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography has improved our ability to reliably diagnose this condition and accurately forecast its prognosis. This review discusses the causes and clinical features of sarcoidosis, and the improvements made in its prognosis, therapeutic management, and the recent discovery of potential biomarkers associated with the diagnostic assay used for sarcoidosis confirmation.
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18
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Chew CY, Mar A, Nikpour M, Saracino AM. Hydroxychloroquine in dermatology: New perspectives on an old drug. Australas J Dermatol 2019; 61:e150-e157. [PMID: 31612996 DOI: 10.1111/ajd.13168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Hydroxychloroquine is an age-old drug whose use as an immunomodulatory agent with a low side-effect profile continues to expand. We present a review of this drug including recently updated prescribing recommendations and a summary of its clinical application in dermatology. A maximum daily dose of 5.0 mg/kg based on actual body weight and no greater than 400 mg is advised in order to reduce the risk of retinopathy, which is potentially permanent and has an estimated prevalence of 7.5% at 5 years on standard dosing. Baseline ophthalmologic assessment followed by annual screening after 5 years is recommended; however, closer monitoring should be considered in the setting of existing retinopathy, a cumulative dose > 1000 g or renal dysfunction. Hydroxychloroquine is now considered to be safe in pregnancy, and routine glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency testing is not required. Smoking can significantly decrease its efficacy although the reason is still uncertain. Hydroxychloroquine appears to also demonstrate antineoplastic and cardioprotective benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adrian Mar
- Department of Dermatology, Monash Health, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mandana Nikpour
- The University of Melbourne at St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Amanda M Saracino
- Division of Medicine, Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases, University College London at Royal Free Hospital London, London, UK
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19
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Mehanna R, Stone L, Itin I. Parkinsonism and neurosarcoidosis: Cause and effect or coincidence? Clin Park Relat Disord 2019; 1:74-76. [PMID: 34316605 PMCID: PMC8288751 DOI: 10.1016/j.prdoa.2019.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Movement disorders in demyelinating diseases can be coincidental or secondary to a demyelinating lesion. We here report the first case of coincidental association of neurosarcoidosis and idiopathic Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja Mehanna
- University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Lael Stone
- Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
| | - Ilia Itin
- Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
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Abstract
Sarcoidosis, a systemic granulomatous disease of unknown cause, has been described worldwide and in all populations with notable differences in clinical characteristics, organ involvement, disease severity, and prognosis among different ethnic and racial groups. While the exact prevalence of sarcoidosis in the Middle East is unknown, studies from various countries in the region have reported the clinical characteristics of affected patients, along with a few anecdotal reports. A search of the MEDLINE and Google Scholar databases was conducted for relevant English-language articles using the terms “sarcoidosis” and “Middle East” or “sarcoidosis” and “Arabs.” Subsequently, the names of individual countries were used as search terms, replacing “Middle East.” Overall, the clinical picture of patients with sarcoidosis in the Middle East is similar to that reported elsewhere; for example, the disease was more frequent among females and respiratory complaints were the predominant symptoms. Within the region, most patients from Oman were older and female, with arthralgia, hypercalcemia, and eye involvement being more common. Constitutional symptoms were frequent, especially among patients from Iran. Cough was more common among patients from Kuwait and Iran, while dyspnea was the predominant symptom for Saudi patients. Erythema nodosum was more common in the Turkish population. Clustering was seen in patients with Stage I and II of the disease in all countries except Oman. Apart from those in Iran, the prognosis of most patients from the Middle East was excellent.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Jayakrishnan
- Department of Medicine, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman
| | | | - Saif Al-Mubaihsi
- Department of Medicine, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman
| | - Omar A Al-Rawas
- College of Medicine and Health Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
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21
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Wang SH, Chung CH, Huang TW, Tsai WC, Peng CK, Huang KL, Perng WC, Chian CF, Chien WC, Shen CH. Bidirectional association between tuberculosis and sarcoidosis. Respirology 2019; 24:467-474. [PMID: 30722101 DOI: 10.1111/resp.13482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Tuberculosis (TB) and sarcoidosis are both granulomatous diseases with potential interassociations. However, much uncertainty remains; thus, the present study aimed to clarify the association between these diseases. METHODS We established two cohorts in this retrospective longitudinal cohort study using data obtained from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database from 2000 to 2015. One cohort, which comprised 31 221 patients with TB and 62 442 age-, sex- and index year-matched controls, was used to analyse the risk of sarcoidosis; the other cohort comprised 2442 patients with sarcoidosis and 9688 controls and was used to assess the risk of TB. A Cox proportional hazards model adjusted for potential confounders was used in each cohort. RESULTS Patients with TB showed an 8.09-fold higher risk of developing sarcoidosis than non-TB subjects (95% CI = 3.66-17.90), whereas patients with sarcoidosis showed a 1.85-fold higher risk of developing TB than non-sarcoidosis subjects (95% CI = 1.36-2.50). The TB subtype analysis revealed the highest risk of developing sarcoidosis in patients with extrapulmonary TB, and the highest risk of developing extrapulmonary TB was observed in patients with sarcoidosis compared with non-sarcoidosis subjects. Patients with TB showed a higher risk of developing sarcoidosis throughout the follow-up period, but patients with sarcoidosis only showed a higher risk of developing TB within the first year. CONCLUSION TB is a risk factor for developing sarcoidosis. The results of this bidirectional cohort study also highlight the clinical difficulty of diagnosing sarcoidosis and TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Huei Wang
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Hsiang Chung
- Department of Medical Research, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.,Taiwanese Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion Association, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tsai-Wang Huang
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chiuan Tsai
- Department of Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Kan Peng
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Lun Huang
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Aerospace and Undersea Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wann-Cherng Perng
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Feng Chian
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wu-Chien Chien
- Department of Medical Research, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.,School of Public Health, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hao Shen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
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