Socio-enviro-economic (SEE) evaluation of drinking water in primary schools of Punjab, Pakistan

The compromised drinking water quality in primary schools can lead to various health issues, particularly among children, as they are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of contaminants. The present study was conducted to assess the drinking water quality and its social and environmental implications among 274 primary schools in suburban and rural Punjab, Pakistan. Eighteen cities were selected for sampling purposes, and results were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Results showed that electrical conductivity (14.60%), total dissolved solids (10.95%), total hardness (16.06%), chloride (29.56%), fluoride (12.04%), nitrate (16.42%), chromium (7.30%), nickel (8.39%), and arsenic (10.95%) exceeded the WHO recommended range. Additionally, 36% of the water samples were contaminated with total coliforms, indicating significant health risks. The Drinking Water Quality Index (DWQI) analysis indicated that 38% of the water samples were classified as good, 41% as fair, 16% as poor, 4% as very poor, and 1% as unsuitable for drinking. These results suggest that the overall water quality is not suitable for safe consumption. Sensitivity analysis using Monte Carlo simulation indicates nitrate, pH, and turbidity as the most critical parameters influencing water quality, emphasizing the need for targeted management strategies. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was used to determine willingness to pay (WTP) for improved drinking water quality, which was PKR 975 per school (approximately USD 3.51). ANOVA, chi-square, Cramér's V, and linear regression tests, with a p-value < 0.05, revealed that social factors (operational budget and education level) significantly affected the willingness to pay for improved drinking water. These findings underscore the urgent need for immediate measures to improve drinking water quality. Despite socio-economic disparities, there is a notable willingness to invest in water quality improvements. Immediate policy actions and targeted interventions are essential to ensure safe drinking water and protect public health. Future research should explore more effective water purification methods and strategies to enhance public awareness and engagement in water safety initiatives.

The impact of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in water: potential risks

This review summarizes research data on SARS-CoV-2 in water environments. A literature survey was conducted using the electronic databases Science Direct, Scopus, and Springer. This complete research included and discussed relevant studies that involve the (1) introduction, (2) definition and features of coronavirus, (2.1) structure and classification, (3) effects on public health, (4) transmission, (5) detection methods, (6) impact of COVID-19 on the water sector (drinking water, cycle water, surface water, wastewater), (6.5) wastewater treatment, and (7) future trends. The results show contamination of clean water sources, and community drinking water is vulnerable. Additionally, there is evidence that sputum, feces, and urine contain SARS-CoV-2, which can maintain its viability in sewage and the urban-rural water cycle to move towards seawater or freshwater; thus, the risk associated with contracting COVID-19 from contact with untreated water or inadequately treated wastewater is high. Moreover, viral loads have been detected in surface water, although the risk is lower for countries that efficiently treat their wastewater. Further investigation is immediately required to determine the persistence and mobility of SARS-CoV-2 in polluted water and sewage as well as the possible potential of disease transmission via drinking water. Conventional wastewater treatment systems have been shown to be effective in removing the virus, which plays an important role in pandemic control. Monitoring of this virus in water is extremely important as it can provide information on the prevalence and distribution of the COVID-19 pandemic in different communities as well as possible infection dynamics to prevent future outbreaks.

Drinking Water Quality Mapping Using Water Quality Index and Geospatial Analysis in Primary Schools of Pakistan

Primary school children in the developing world often lack potable water, which may result in a high burden of water-related diseases and poor school performance. The present study aimed to characterize the drinking water quality in primary schools of Pakistan. We used a multistage random-sampling method to select 425 primary schools from selected districts of Sindh province. Standard methods were used to characterize water quality. The results were compared with maximum acceptable values recommended by the Pakistani National Environmental Quality Standards (Pak NEQS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water quality standards. Groundwater (62%) and surface water (38%) were identified as two major drinking water sources in the selected schools with varying levels of water quality. Among all parameters, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, and nitrate remained within WHO and Pak NEQS water quality standard limit, while total dissolved solids (TDS) (33%), electrical conductivity (EC) (46%), chloride (34%), turbidity (27%), and hardness (11%) samples exceeded standard limits. All dissolved salts had moderate to strong positive correlations with TDS and EC values. Based on a water quality index (WQI), 74% of primary schools had access to excellent or good quality drinking water compared to 26% of schools that had access to either poor, very poor or unsuitable drinking water. Among all three regions, more schools from South Sindh had either poor, very poor or unsuitable drinking water (33%) compared to the Central (25%) and North zones (15%). Hence, water from these locations is unfit for human consumption and these schools need better water quality management plans to stop the spread of water-related diseases in primary school children.