1
|
John R, Dhillon MS, Dhillon S. Genetics and the Elite Athlete: Our Understanding in 2020. Indian J Orthop 2020; 54:256-263. [PMID: 32399143 PMCID: PMC7205921 DOI: 10.1007/s43465-020-00056-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Modern competitive sport has evolved so much that athletes would go to great extremes to develop themselves into champions; medicine has also evolved to the point that many genetic elements have been identified to be associated with specific athletic traits, and genetic alterations are also possible. The current review examines the published literature and looks at three important factors: genetic polymorphism influencing sporting ability, gene doping and genetic tendency to injury. The ACTN3 gene has an influence on type II muscle fibres, with the R allele being advantageous to power sports like sprinting and the XX genotype being associated with lower muscle strength and sprinting ability. The ACE gene polymorphisms are associated with cardio-respiratory efficiency and could influence endurance athletes. Many other genes are being looked at, with specific focus on those that are potentially related to enhancement of athletic ability. Recognition of these specific gene polymorphisms brings into play the concept of genetic engineering in athletes, which constitutes gene doping and is outlawed. This has the potential to develop into the next big threat in elite sports; gene doping could have dangerous and even fatal outcomes, as the knowledge of gene therapy is still in its infancy. Genetic predisposition to injury is also being identified; recent publications have increased the awareness of gene polymorphisms predisposing to injuries of ligaments and tendons due to influence on collagen structure and extracellular matrix. Ongoing work is looking at identifying the same genes from different races and different sexes to see if there are quantitative racial or sexual differences. All of the above have led to serious ethical concerns; in the twenty-first century some sports associations and some countries are looking at genetic testing for their players. Unfortunately, the science is still developing, and the experience of its application is limited worldwide. Nevertheless, this field has caught the imagination of both the public and the sportsperson, and hence the concerned doctors should be aware of the potential problems and current issues involved in understanding genetic traits and polymorphisms, genetic testing and genetic engineering.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh John
- Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, Hull University Teaching Hospital, East Yorkshire, Hull, HU3 2JZ UK
| | - Mandeep Singh Dhillon
- Department of Orthopaedics, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India 160012
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lazan A, Greenbaum D. Collegiate Sports: Professionals All But in Name Raise Unique Bioethics Concerns in the Collection of Biometric Data. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOETHICS : AJOB 2017; 17:70-72. [PMID: 27996897 DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2016.1251646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
|
3
|
Mattsson CM, Wheeler MT, Waggott D, Caleshu C, Ashley EA. Sports genetics moving forward: lessons learned from medical research. Physiol Genomics 2016; 48:175-82. [PMID: 26757801 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00109.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sports genetics can take advantage of lessons learned from human disease genetics. By righting past mistakes and increasing scientific rigor, we can magnify the breadth and depth of knowledge in the field. We present an outline of challenges facing sports genetics in the light of experiences from medical research. Sports performance is complex, resulting from a combination of a wide variety of different traits and attributes. Improving sports genetics will foremost require analyses based on detailed phenotyping. To find widely valid, reproducible common variants associated with athletic phenotypes, study sample sizes must be dramatically increased. One paradox is that in order to confirm relevance, replications in specific populations must be undertaken. Family studies of athletes may facilitate the discovery of rare variants with large effects on athletic phenotypes. The complexity of the human genome, combined with the complexity of athletic phenotypes, will require additional metadata and biological validation to identify a comprehensive set of genes involved. Analysis of personal genetic and multiomic profiles contribute to our conceptualization of precision medicine; the same will be the case in precision sports science. In the refinement of sports genetics it is essential to evaluate similarities and differences between sexes and among ethnicities. Sports genetics to date have been hampered by small sample sizes and biased methodology, which can lead to erroneous associations and overestimation of effect sizes. Consequently, currently available genetic tests based on these inherently limited data cannot predict athletic performance with any accuracy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Mikael Mattsson
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden;
| | - Matthew T Wheeler
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Center for Inherited Cardiovascular Disease, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Daryl Waggott
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Center for Inherited Cardiovascular Disease, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Colleen Caleshu
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Center for Inherited Cardiovascular Disease, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, California; and
| | - Euan A Ashley
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Center for Inherited Cardiovascular Disease, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle T Goodlin
- *Departments of Developmental Biology and Genetics, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California; and †Division of Epidemiology, Department of Health Research and Policy, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|