Regional health care services and rates of lower extremity amputation related to diabetes and peripheral artery disease: an ecological study

Health Disparities Across the Spectrum of Amputation Care: A Review of Literature

Limb loss is a common and disabling experience for patients, frequently caused by critical limb ischemia or deterioration of chronic wounds. Disparities in outcomes for prevention of amputation, level of amputation, and postamputation outcomes have been described. Understanding the nature of these disparities and the populations most affected can help clinicians and policymakers target interventions and programs. This article reviews existing literature regarding disparities in amputation care, including prevention methods, surgical outcomes, and postamputation outcomes. The authors identified several potential racial, socioeconomic, and gender disparities, particularly affecting Black, Native American, and Latino/a/x patients, female gender, and those in rural settings.

Developing an interprofessional decision support tool for diabetic foot ulcers management in primary care within the family medicine group model: a Delphi study in Canada

BACKGROUND

Primary care professionals encounter difficulties coordinating the continuum of care between primary care providers and second-line specialists and adhere to practice guidelines pertaining to diabetic foot ulcers management. Family medicine groups are providing primary care services aimed to improve access, interdisciplinary care, coordination and quality of health services, and reduce emergency department visits. Most professionals working in family medicine groups are primary care physicians and registered nurses. The aim of this study was to develop and validate an interprofessional decision support tool to guide the management of diabetic foot ulcers for primary care professionals working within the family medicine group model.

METHODS

A one-page decision tool developed by the research team was validated by an expert panel using a three-round Delphi protocol held between December 2019 and August 2021. The tool includes 43 individual actions and a care pathway from initial presentation to secondary prevention. Data collection was realized with both paper and electronic questionnaires, and answers were compiled in an electronic spreadsheet. Data was analyzed with use of descriptive statistics, and consensus for each item was defined as ≥ 80% agreement.

RESULTS

Experts from 12 pre-identified professions of the diabetic foot ulcer interdisciplinary care team were included, 39 participants out of the 59 invited to first round (66.1%), 34 out of 39 for second (87.2%) and 22 out of 34 for third (64.7%) rounds. All items included in the final version of the decision support tool reached consensus and were deemed clear, relevant and feasible. One or more professionals were identified to be responsible for every action to be taken.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provided a comprehensive decision support tool to guide primary care professionals in the management of diabetic foot ulcers. Implementation and evaluation in the clinical setting will need to be undertaken in the future.

A novel Canadian multidisciplinary acute care pathway for people hospitalised with a diabetic foot ulcer

This manuscript describes the implementation and initial evaluation of a novel Canadian acute care pathway for people with a diabetic foot ulcer (DFU). A multidisciplinary team developed and implemented an acute care pathway for patients with a DFU who presented to the emergency department (ED) and required hospitalisation at a tertiary care hospital in Canada. Processes of care, length of stay (LOS), and hospitalisation costs were considered through retrospective cohort study of all DFU hospitalizations from pathway launch in December 2018 to December 2020. There were 82 DFU-related hospital admissions through the ED of which 55 required invasive intervention: 28 (34.1%) minor amputations, 16 (19.5%) abscess drainage and debridement, 6 (7.3%) lower extremity revascularisations, 5 (6.1%) major amputations. Mean hospital LOS was 8.8 ± 4.9 days. Mean hospitalisation cost was $20 569 (±14 143): $25 901 (±15 965) when surgical intervention was required and $9279 (±7106) when it was not. LOS and hospitalisation costs compared favourably to historical data. An acute care DFU pathway can support the efficient evaluation and management of patients hospitalised with a DFU. A dedicated multidisciplinary DFU care team is a valuable resource for hospitals in Canada.

Identifying barriers to preventive care among First Nations people at risk of lower extremity amputation: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

First Nations people in Canada are overrepresented among those who have undergone nontraumatic lower extremity amputation, and are more likely to be younger, have diabetic foot infections and have no previous revascularization procedures than non-First Nations populations who have undergone lower extremity amputations. We sought to identify access barriers for high-risk First Nations patients, explore patients' experiences with health care systems and identify solutions.

METHODS

Employing a community participatory research design, we engaged representatives from 2 communities. They assisted with research design and data analysis, and approved the final manuscript. Using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach and purposeful sampling, we conducted 5 semistructured focus groups between August and December 2021 with community health care teams and patients at risk for, or who had previously undergone, a nontraumatic lower extremity amputation.

RESULTS

Patients' (n = 10) and community health care providers' (n = 18) perspectives indicated that barriers to health care access led to delayed care and increased complications and risk for lower extremity amputations, leading to aggressive procedures upon receiving care. Barriers to care led to negative experiences at urban centres and aggressive procedures created further distrust, leading to care disengagement and poor outcomes. Patients and providers both suggested building stronger partnerships between urban and rural health care providers, improving education for patients and health care providers and identifying innovative strategies to improve patients' overall health.

INTERPRETATION

Systemic changes, health promotional program and reliable on-reserve primary care are needed to create equitable access for First Nation patients at risk for lower extremity amputations. The study results imply that health care delivery for First Nations patients at risk for lower extremity amputations can be improved through stronger partnership and communication between urban and community providers, and continued education and cultural competency training for urban health care providers.

Regional variation in lower extremity revascularization and amputation for peripheral artery disease

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to quantify the recent and historical extent of regional variation in revascularization and amputation for peripheral artery disease (PAD).

METHODS

This was a repeated cross-sectional analysis of all Ontarians aged 40 years or greater between 2002 and 2019. The co-primary outcomes were revascularization (endovascular or open) and major (above-ankle) amputation for PAD. For each of 14 health care administrative regions, rates per 100,000 person-years (PY) were calculated for 6-year time periods from the fiscal years 2002 to 2019. Rates were directly standardized for regional demographics (age, sex, income) and comorbidities (congestive heart failure, diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic kidney disease). The extent of regional variation in revascularization and major amputation rates for each time period was quantified by the ratio of 90th over the 10th percentile (PRR).

RESULTS

In 2014 to 2019, there were large differences across regions in demographics (rural living [range, 0%-39.4%], lowest neighborhood income quintile [range, 10.1%-25.5%]) and comorbidities (diabetes [range, 14.2%-22.0%], chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [range, 7.8%-17.9%]), and chronic kidney disease [range, 2.1%-4.0%]. Standardized revascularization rates ranged across regions from 52.6 to 132.6/100,000 PY and standardized major amputation rates ranged from 10.0 to 37.7/100,000 PY. The extent of regional variation was large (PRR ≥2.0) for both revascularization and major amputation. From 2002-2004 to 2017-2019, the extent of regional variation increased from moderate to large for revascularization (standardized PRR, 1.87 to 2.04) and major amputation (standardized PRR, 1.94 to 3.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Significant regional differences in revascularization and major amputation rates related to PAD remain after standardizing for regional differences in demographics and comorbidities. These differences have not improved over time.

Spatial analysis of factors impacting lower limb major amputation rates in Hungary

Summary: Background: Lower limb major amputations represent a substantial public health burden in Hungary, where previous research revealed markedly high rates with significant spatial variations. Therefore, we aimed to assess to what extent healthcare and socio-economic factors in the local environment explain the regional disparity. Patients and methods: In a retrospective cohort analysis, based on the healthcare administrative data of the Hungarian population, lower limb major amputations were identified from 1st of January 2017 to 31st of December 2019. The permanent residence of the amputees on the local administrative level (197 geographic units) was used to identify potential healthcare (outpatient care, revascularisation activity) and socio-economic (educational attainment, local infrastructure and services, income and employment) determinants of amputations. Spatial effects were modelled using the spatial Durbin error regression model. Results: 10,209 patients underwent 11,649 lower limb major amputations in the observational period. In our spatial analysis, outpatient care was not associated with local amputation rates. However, revascularisation activity in a geographic unit entailed an increased rate of amputations, while revascularisations in the neighbouring areas were associated with a lower rate of amputations, resulting in an overall neutral effect (β=−0.002, 95% CI: −0.05 – 0.04, p=0.96). The local socio-economic environment had a significant direct inverse association with amputations (β=−7.45, 95% CI: −10.50 – −4.42, p<0.0001) . Our spatial model showed better performance than the traditional statistical modelling (ordinary least squares regression), explaining 37% of the variation in amputations rates. Conclusions: Regional environmental factors explain a substantial portion of spatial disparities in amputation practice. While the socio-economic environment shows a significant inverse relationship with the regional amputation rates, the impact of the local healthcare-related factors (outpatient care, revascularisation activity) is not straightforward. Unravelling the impact of the location on amputation practice requires complex spatial modelling, which may guide efficient healthcare policy decisions.

A Population-Based Analysis of Diabetes-Related Care Measures, Foot Complications, and Amputation During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ontario, Canada

IMPORTANCE

Deferred diabetic foot screening and delays in timely care of acute foot complications during the COVID-19 pandemic may have contributed to an increase in limb loss.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association of the COVID-19 pandemic with diabetes-related care measures, foot complications, and amputation.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This population-based cohort study included all adult residents of Ontario, Canada, with diabetes and compared the rates of selected outcomes from January 1, 2020, to February 23, 2021, vs January 1, 2019, to February 23, 2020.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Comprehensive in-person diabetes care assessment, including foot examination; hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) measurement; emergency department visit or hospitalization for diabetic foot ulceration, osteomyelitis, or gangrene; lower extremity open or endovascular revascularization; minor (toe or partial-foot) amputation; and major (above-ankle) leg amputation. Rates and rate ratios (RRs) comparing 2020-2021 vs 2019-2020 for each measure were calculated for 10-week periods, anchored relative to onset of the pandemic on March 11, 2020 (11th week of 2020).

RESULTS

On March 11, 2020, the study included 1 488 605 adults with diabetes (median [IQR] age, 65 [55-74] years; 776 665 [52.2%] men), and on March 11, 2019, the study included 1 441 029 adults with diabetes (median [IQR] age, 65 [55-74] years; 751 459 [52.1%] men). After the onset of the pandemic, rates of major amputation in 2020-2021 decreased compared with 2019-2020 levels. The RR for the prepandemic period from January 1 to March 10 was 1.05 (95% CI, 0.88-1.25), with RRs in the pandemic periods ranging from 0.86 (95% CI, 0.72-1.03) in May 20 to July 28 to 0.95 (95% CI, 0.80-1.13) in October 7 to December 15. There were no consistent differences in demographic characteristics or comorbidities of patients undergoing amputation in the 2020-2021 vs 2019-2020 periods. Rates of comprehensive in-person diabetes care assessment and HbA1c measurement declined sharply and remained below 2019-2020 levels (eg, in-person assessment, March 11 to May 19: RR, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.28-0.28). The rates of emergency department visits (eg, March 11 to May 19: RR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.61-0.75), hospitalization (eg, March 11 to May 19: RR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.68-0.87), open revascularization (eg, March 11 to May 19: RR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.56-0.79), endovascular revascularization (March 11 to May 19: RR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.61-0.81), and minor amputation (March 11 to May 19: RR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.60-0.83) initially dropped but recovered to 2019-2020 levels over the study period.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this population-based cohort study, disruptions in care related to the COVID-19 pandemic were not associated with excess leg amputations among people living with diabetes. As the pandemic ends, improved prevention and treatment of diabetic foot complications will be necessary to maintain these positive results.