Increased blood coagulation is associated with poor neurological outcome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) have demonstrated increased blood coagulation which is thought to contribute to delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) and to a worse outcome. Therefore, we sought to determine whether this increased blood coagulation, detectable with rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM), was associated with DCI and neurological outcome.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective observational study of 60 consecutive adult aSAH patients. ROTEM's EXTEM and FIBTEM assays and D-dimer were analyzed at admission and post-bleed days (PBDs) 2-3, 4-5, 7-8, and 11-12. ROTEM's clot formation time (CFT) represents the stabilization of the clot, and the maximum clot firmness (MCF) the maximum clot strength. Glasgow Outcome Scale extended (GOSe) at three months determined the neurological outcome.

RESULTS

DCI incidence was 41.7%. EXTEM-CFT was significantly shorter in patients with unfavorable neurological outcome (GOSe 1-4) on PBDs 4-5 and 7-8, p < 0.05, respectively. FIBTEM-MCF was significantly higher in patients with unfavorable neurological outcomes on PBD 4-5 (p < 0.05), PBD 7-8 (p < 0.05), and PBD 11-12 (p < 0.05). EXTEM-CFT decreased, and FIBTEM-MCF rose during the study period in all patients. Patients with unfavorable neurological outcome had a higher D-dimer at all studied time points, p < 0.05. No difference was found in the ROTEM parameters or D-dimer when assessing patients with and without DCI.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients were in a state of increased blood coagulation after aSAH, with those with unfavorable neurological outcome being more coagulable than those with favorable outcome. However, increased blood coagulation was not associated with DCI.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov, NCT03985176.

2023 Guideline for the Management of Patients With Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: A Guideline From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association

AIM

The "2023 Guideline for the Management of Patients With Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage" replaces the 2012 "Guidelines for the Management of Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage." The 2023 guideline is intended to provide patient-centric recommendations for clinicians to prevent, diagnose, and manage patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

METHODS

A comprehensive search for literature published since the 2012 guideline, derived from research principally involving human subjects, published in English, and indexed in MEDLINE, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and other selected databases relevant to this guideline, was conducted between March 2022 and June 2022. In addition, the guideline writing group reviewed documents on related subject matter previously published by the American Heart Association. Newer studies published between July 2022 and November 2022 that affected recommendation content, Class of Recommendation, or Level of Evidence were included if appropriate. Structure: Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage is a significant global public health threat and a severely morbid and often deadly condition. The 2023 aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage guideline provides recommendations based on current evidence for the treatment of these patients. The recommendations present an evidence-based approach to preventing, diagnosing, and managing patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, with the intent to improve quality of care and align with patients' and their families' and caregivers' interests. Many recommendations from the previous aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage guidelines have been updated with new evidence, and new recommendations have been created when supported by published data.

The impact of fever as a testing indication on the detection rate of deep vein thrombosis in neurocritically ill patients

Aim

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is considered a possible source of non-infectious, non-central fever in the intensive care unit (ICU). In the neurocritically ill, it is unknown whether lower extremity venous Doppler ultrasonography (LEVDUS) for DVT in the setting of fever leads to a higher detection rate than the baseline detection rate of DVT in this population. The aim of this study was to compare the DVT detection rate of LEVDUS performed for the indication of fever to LEVDUS performed for other indications in a neurosciences ICU.

Methods

Requisition forms for all LEVDUS performed in a referral neurosciences ICU were reviewed and separated into those with "fever" as the stated reason for request and those with other stated reasons. The DVT detection rate was compared between these two categories of indications.

Results

Five hundred eleven LEVDUS were analyzed, of which 422 had been ordered for indications other than fever. Sixteen of these tests were positive, a detection rate of 3.8%. The remaining 89 LEVDUS had "fever" as the ordering indication. Six of these tests were positive for DVT, a detection rate of 6.7%. The likelihood of positivity of a test obtained as part of fever evaluation relative to one obtained for non-fever indications was not significantly different (OR, 1.83; 95% CI, 0.570-5.11; P = 0.246).

Conclusion

LEVDUS triggered by fever detected DVT at a numerically, but not statistically significantly higher rate than did LEVDUS performed for other indications in a neurocritically ill population. More rigorous investigation of this question is needed.

Multidisciplinary Bundle Approach in Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Patients with Non-Traumatic Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Background

A venous thromboembolism (VTE) bundle was launched in 2016 at the University of Illinois Hospital aiming to reduce the rate of VTE in the neurosurgical ICU. Main elements of the bundle included correct and early use of intermittent pneumatic compression and subcutaneous heparin.

Methods

Patients with SAH were retrospectively identified from 2014 until 2018. VTE events were diagnosed using twice weekly lower-extremity venous Duplex ultrasound and chest computerized tomography when appropriate.

Results

A total of 133 patients was included in each group. The incidence of VTE was not significantly different before and after the bundle (15% vs. 12%, p = 0.47). No difference was found regarding new episode of intracranial hemorrhage secondary to SQH (1.5% vs. 2.1%, p = 0.65). Multivariate analysis demonstrated that longer ICU LOS, higher Caprini score, and presence of baseline lung diseases were associated with VTE development.

Conclusions

With a median Caprini score of 9, our patient population was found to be at high risk for developing VTE. The implementation of the VTE bundle did not significantly reduce the rate of VTE in patients with non-traumatic SAH at UIH.

Utility of the Hijdra Sum Score in Predicting Risk of Aneurysm in Patients With Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: A Single-Center Experience With 550 Patients

BACKGROUND

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is most commonly caused by a ruptured vascular lesion. A significant number of patients presenting with SAH have no identifiable cause despite extensive cerebrovascular imaging at presentation. Significant neurological morbidity or mortality can result from misdiagnosis of aneurysm.

OBJECTIVE

To generate a model to assist in predicting the risk of aneurysm in this patient population.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of all patients aged ≥18 yr admitted to a single center from March 2008 to March 2018 with nontraumatic SAH (n = 550). Patient information was compared between those with and without aneurysm to identify potential predictors. Odds ratios obtained from a logistic regression model were converted into scores which were summed and tested for predictive ability.

RESULTS

Female sex, higher modified Fisher or Hijdra score, nonperimesencephalic location, presence of intracerebral hemorrhage, World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies (WFNS) score ≥3, need for cerebrospinal fluid diversion on admission, and history of tobacco use were all entered into multivariable analysis. Greater modified Fisher, greater Hijdra score, WFNS ≥3, and hydrocephalus present on admission were significantly associated with the presence of an aneurysm. A model based on the Hijdra score and SAH location was generated and validated.

CONCLUSION

We show for the first time that the Hijdra score, in addition to other factors, may assist in identifying patients at risk for aneurysm on cerebrovascular imaging. A simple scoring tool based on patient sex, SAH location, and SAH burden can assist in predicting the presence of an aneurysm in patients with nontraumatic SAH.

Predictors of deep-vein thrombosis in subarachnoid hemorrhage: a retrospective analysis

BACKGROUND

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a severe subtype of hemorrhagic stroke, and deep-vein thrombosis is a frequent complication detected in these patients. In addition to other well-established risk factors, the early activation of coagulation systems present in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage could potentially play a role in the incidence of deep-vein thrombosis. This study aims to identify possible predictors for deep-vein thrombosis related to subarachnoid hemorrhage.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study on patients with a diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage who presented to our institution between 1 January 2014 and 1 August 2018. We reviewed electronic medical records and analyzed several parameters such as Fisher scale, World Federation of Neurosurgical Surgeons scale, aneurysm site, surgical or endovascular treatment, decompressive craniectomy, vasospasm, infection (meningitis and pneumonia), presence of motor deficit, length of stay in the ICU, length of hospital stay, number of days under ventilator support, d-dimer at hospitalization, and the time to thromboprophylaxis (days).

RESULTS

The univariate analysis showed that intraparenchymal cerebral hemorrhage, d-dimer at hospitalization, the time to thromboprophylaxis, motor deficit, and aneurysm located at the internal carotid artery were statistically significant factors. Intraparenchymal cerebral hemorrhage (OR 2,78 95%CI 1.07-7.12), motor deficit (OR 3.46; 95%CI 1.37-9.31), and d-dimer at hospitalization (OR 1.002 95% CI 1.001-1.003) were demonstrated as independent risk factors for deep-vein thrombosis. Length of hospital stay was also found to be significantly longer in patients who developed deep-vein thrombosis (p value 0.018).

CONCLUSION

Elevated d-dimer level at the time of hospitalization, motor deficit, and the presence of an intraparenchymal hemorrhage are independent risk factors for deep-vein thrombosis. Patients with DVT also had a significantly longer hospital stay. Even though further studies are needed, patients with elevated d-dimer at hospitalization and intraparenchymal cerebral hemorrhage may benefit from a more aggressive screening strategy for deep-vein thrombosis.

Korean Clinical Practice Guidelines for Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Despite advancements in treating ruptured cerebral aneurysms, an aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) is still a grave cerebrovascular disease associated with a high rate of morbidity and mortality. Based on the literature published to date, worldwide academic and governmental committees have developed clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) to propose standards for disease management in order to achieve the best treatment outcomes for aSAHs. In 2013, the Korean Society of Cerebrovascular Surgeons issued a Korean version of the CPGs for aSAHs. The group researched all articles and major foreign CPGs published in English until December 2015 using several search engines. Based on these articles, levels of evidence and grades of recommendations were determined by our society as well as by other related Quality Control Committees from neurointervention, neurology and rehabilitation medicine. The Korean version of the CPGs for aSAHs includes risk factors, diagnosis, initial management, medical and surgical management to prevent rebleeding, management of delayed cerebral ischemia and vasospasm, treatment of hydrocephalus, treatment of medical complications and early rehabilitation. The CPGs are not the absolute standard but are the present reference as the evidence is still incomplete, each environment of clinical practice is different, and there is a high probability of variation in the current recommendations. The CPGs will be useful in the fields of clinical practice and research.

Rivaroxaban for Preventing Venous Thromboembolism in High-Risk Ambulatory Patients with Cancer: Rationale and Design of the CASSINI Trial. Rationale and Design of the CASSINI Trial

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a frequent complication of cancer associated with morbidity, mortality, increased hospitalizations and higher health care costs. Cancer patients at increased risk for VTE can be identified using a validated risk assessment score, and the incidence of VTE can be reduced in high-risk settings using anticoagulation. Rivaroxaban is a potent, oral, direct, factor Xa inhibitor approved for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic events, including VTE. CASSINI is a double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, multicentre study comparing rivaroxaban with placebo in adult ambulatory patients with various cancers who are initiating systemic cancer therapy and are at high risk of VTE (Khorana score ≥ 2). Patients with primary brain tumours or those at risk for bleeding are excluded. Approximately 700 patients will be randomized 1:1 to rivaroxaban 10 mg daily or placebo for up to 6 months if there is no evidence of VTE from compression ultrasonography (CU) during screening or from routine care imaging within 30 days prior to randomization. Mandatory CU will also be performed at weeks 8 and 16 (±7 days), and at study end (±3 days). The primary efficacy hypothesis is that anticoagulation with rivaroxaban reduces the composite of objectively confirmed symptomatic or asymptomatic, lower-extremity, proximal deep-vein thrombosis (DVT); symptomatic, upper-extremity DVT; symptomatic or incidental pulmonary embolism; and VTE-related death compared with placebo. The primary safety objective is to assess major bleeding events (Clinical trial information: NCT02555878).

Prophylaxis of Venous Thrombosis in Neurocritical Care Patients: An Evidence-Based Guideline: A Statement for Healthcare Professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society

The risk of death from venous thromboembolism (VTE) is high in intensive care unit patients with neurological diagnoses. This is due to an increased risk of venous stasis secondary to paralysis as well as an increased prevalence of underlying pathologies that cause endothelial activation and create an increased risk of embolus formation. In many of these diseases, there is an associated risk from bleeding because of standard VTE prophylaxis. There is a paucity of prospective studies examining different VTE prophylaxis strategies in the neurologically ill. The lack of a solid evidentiary base has posed challenges for the establishment of consistent and evidence-based clinical practice standards. In response to this need for guidance, the Neurocritical Care Society set out to develop and evidence-based guideline using GRADE to safely reduce VTE and its associated complications.

Safety of early pharmacological thromboprophylaxis after subarachnoid hemorrhage

OBJECTIVE

The recent guidelines on management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) advise pharmacological thromboprophylaxis (PTP) after aneurysm obliteration. However, no study has addressed the safety of PTP in the aSAH population. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the safety of early PTP after aSAH.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort of aSAH patients admitted between January 2012 and June 2013 in a single high-volume aSAH center. Traumatic SAH and perimesencephalic hemorrhage patients were excluded. Patients were grouped according to PTP timing: early PTP group (PTP within 24 hours of aneurysm treatment), and delayed PTP group (PTP started > 24 hours).

RESULTS

A total of 174 SAH patients (mean age 56.3±12.5 years) were admitted during the study period. Thirty-nine patients (22%) did not receive PTP, whereas 135 patients (78%) received PTP after aneurysm treatment or negative angiography. Among the patients who received PTP, 65 (48%) had an external ventricular drain. Twenty-eight patients (21%) received early PTP, and 107 (79%) received delayed PTP. No patient in the early treatment group and three patients in the delayed PTP group developed an intracerebral hemorrhagic complication. Two required neurosurgical intervention and one died. These three patients were on concomitant PTP and dual antiplatelet therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The initiation of PTP within 24 hours may be safe after the treatment of a ruptured aneurysm or in angiogram-negative SAH patients with diffuse aneurysmal hemorrhage pattern. We suggest caution with concomitant use of PTP and dual antiplatelet agents, because it possibly increases the risk for intracerebral hemorrhage.

The critical care management of poor-grade subarachnoid haemorrhage

Aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage is a neurological syndrome with complex systemic complications. The rupture of an intracranial aneurysm leads to the acute extravasation of arterial blood under high pressure into the subarachnoid space and often into the brain parenchyma and ventricles. The haemorrhage triggers a cascade of complex events, which ultimately can result in early brain injury, delayed cerebral ischaemia, and systemic complications. Although patients with poor-grade subarachnoid haemorrhage (World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies 4 and 5) are at higher risk of early brain injury, delayed cerebral ischaemia, and systemic complications, the early and aggressive treatment of this patient population has decreased overall mortality from more than 50% to 35% in the last four decades. These management strategies include (1) transfer to a high-volume centre, (2) neurological and systemic support in a dedicated neurological intensive care unit, (3) early aneurysm repair, (4) use of multimodal neuromonitoring, (5) control of intracranial pressure and the optimisation of cerebral oxygen delivery, (6) prevention and treatment of medical complications, and (7) prevention, monitoring, and aggressive treatment of delayed cerebral ischaemia. The aim of this article is to provide a summary of critical care management strategies applied to the subarachnoid haemorrhage population, especially for patients in poor neurological condition, on the basis of the modern concepts of early brain injury and delayed cerebral ischaemia.

Managing subarachnoid hemorrhage in the neurocritical care unit

Patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage who survive the initial hemorrhage require complex interventions to occlude the aneurysm, typically followed by a prolonged intensive care unit and hospital course to manage the complications that follow. Much of the morbidity and mortality from this disease happens in delayed fashion in the neurocritical care unit. Despite progress made in the last decades, much remains to be understood about this disease and how to best manage these patients. This article provides a review of current evidence and the authors' experience, aimed at providing practical aid to those caring for patients with this disease.

An analysis of deep vein thrombosis in 1277 consecutive neurosurgical patients undergoing routine weekly ultrasonography

Object

Patients requiring neurosurgical intervention are known to be at increased risk for deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and attendant morbidity and mortality. Pulmonary embolism (PE) is the most catastrophic sequela of DVT and is the direct cause of death in 16% of all in-hospital mortalities. Protocols for DVT screening and early detection, as well as treatment paradigms to prevent PE in the acute postoperative period, are needed in neurosurgery. The authors analyzed the effectiveness of weekly lower-extremity venous duplex ultrasonography (LEVDU) in patients requiring surgical intervention for cranial or spinal pathology for detection of DVT and prevention of PE.

Methods

Data obtained in 1277 consecutive patients admitted to a major tertiary care center requiring neurosurgical intervention were retrospectively reviewed. All patients underwent admission (within 1 week of neurosurgical intervention) LEVDU as well as weekly LEVDU surveillance if the initial study was normal. Additional LEVDU was ordered in any patient in whom DVT was suspected on daily clinical physical examination or in patients in whom chest CT angiography confirmed a pulmonary embolus. An electronic database was created and statistical analyses performed.

Results

The overall incidence of acute DVT was 2.8% (36 patients). Of these cases of DVT, a statistically significant greater number (86%) were discovered on admission (within 1–7 days after admission) screening LEVDU (p < 0.05), whereas fewer were documented 8–14 days after admission (2.8%) or after 14 days (11.2%) postadmission. Additionally, for acute DVT detection in the present population, there were no underlying statistically significant risk factors regarding baseline physical examination, age, ambulatory status, or type of surgery.

The overall incidence of acute symptomatic PE was 0.3% and the mortality rate was 0%.

Conclusions

Performed within 1 week of admission in patients who will undergo neurosurgical intervention, LEVDU is effective in screening for acute DVT and initiating treatment to prevent PE, thereby decreasing the overall mortality rate. Routine LEVDU beyond this time point may not be needed to detect DVT and prevent PE unless a change in the patient's physical examination status is detected.

Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/american Stroke Association

PURPOSE

The aim of this guideline is to present current and comprehensive recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH).

METHODS

A formal literature search of MEDLINE (November 1, 2006, through May 1, 2010) was performed. Data were synthesized with the use of evidence tables. Writing group members met by teleconference to discuss data-derived recommendations. The American Heart Association Stroke Council's Levels of Evidence grading algorithm was used to grade each recommendation. The guideline draft was reviewed by 7 expert peer reviewers and by the members of the Stroke Council Leadership and Manuscript Oversight Committees. It is intended that this guideline be fully updated every 3 years.

RESULTS

Evidence-based guidelines are presented for the care of patients presenting with aSAH. The focus of the guideline was subdivided into incidence, risk factors, prevention, natural history and outcome, diagnosis, prevention of rebleeding, surgical and endovascular repair of ruptured aneurysms, systems of care, anesthetic management during repair, management of vasospasm and delayed cerebral ischemia, management of hydrocephalus, management of seizures, and management of medical complications.

CONCLUSIONS

aSAH is a serious medical condition in which outcome can be dramatically impacted by early, aggressive, expert care. The guidelines offer a framework for goal-directed treatment of the patient with aSAH.

Deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis

Although clinicians are generally advised to use prophylactic therapy to reduce the risk for developing deep venous thrombosis in patients after repair of ruptured aneurysms, limited data are available to guide specific therapeutic decisions. An electronic literature search was conducted to identify English-language articles that addressed prophylactic treatment for deep venous thrombosis after subarachnoid hemorrhage published between 1980 and March 2011. A total of 12 articles were included in this review, including seven original research studies and one meta-analysis. The incidence of deep venous thrombosis varied among studies, with the highest incidence reported with prospective ultrasound screening. Poor-grade patients are at highest risk. Mechanical prophylactic methods appear to be modestly effective as monotherapy, without significant risk for the typical patient with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Unfractionated heparin is moderately effective but carries a small risk of intracranial hemorrhage. Low molecular weight heparin has been linked to an increased risk for intracranial hemorrhage. Limited data are available to direct the timing and duration of prophylactic therapies.

Prevention of Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism in Patients With Stroke

Venous thromboembolism (VTE), encompassing deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, is a potentially fatal but preventable complication of stroke. Reported rates of VTE after stroke have decreased over the last four decades, possibly due to the implementation of stroke units, early mobilization and hydration, and increased early use of antiplatelets. Additional means of thromboprophylaxis in stroke include mechanical methods (ie, compression stockings) to prevent venous stasis and medical therapy including antiplatelets, heparins, and heparinoids. Risk of VTE must be balanced by potential risk of hemorrhagic complications from pharmacotherapy. Unfractionated heparin, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), and danaparoid are acceptable options for chemoprophylaxis though none have shown superior efficacy for VTE prevention without an associated increase in major hemorrhage. The efficacy and timing of pharmacological thromboprophylaxis in hemorrhagic stroke are not well defined. Graduated compression stockings are associated with an increased rate of adverse events and are not recommended and intermittent pneumatic compression stockings require further investigation.

Epidemiology of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage

Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) is a form of hemorrhagic stroke that affects up to 30,000 individuals per year in the United States. The incidence of aSAH has been shown to be associated with numerous nonmodifiable (age, gender, ethnicity, family history, aneurysm location, size) and modifiable (hypertension, body mass index, tobacco and illicit drug use) risk factors. Although early repair of ruptured aneurysms and aggressive postoperative management has improved overall outcomes, it remains a devastating disease, with mortality approaching 50% and less than 60% of survivors returning to functional independence. As treatment modalities change and the percentage of minority and elderly populations increase, it is critical to maintain an up-to-date understanding of the epidemiology of SAH.

Symptomatic venous thromboembolism: incidence and risk factors in patients with spontaneous or traumatic intracranial hemorrhage

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study are to determine the incidence of symptomatic venous thromboembolism (VTE) in neurosurgery intensive care unit (NSICU) patients with spontaneous or traumatic intracranial hemorrhage and to identify the common VTE risk factors by injury type.

METHODS

This retrospective, single-center cohort study included adult patients admitted to the NSICU between January 2001 and July 2004 with a primary diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), or traumatic brain injury (TBI). Patients and VTE events were identified using ICD-9 codes. All patients received low-dose unfractionated heparin or enoxaparin and intermittent pneumatic compression device. Descriptive statistics were used to describe patient characteristics.

RESULTS

The overall incidence of symptomatic VTE was 3.8% (n = 1195). The incidence of VTE was 6.7% in SAH patients (n = 179), 2.9% in ICH patients (n = 516), and 3.8% in TBI patients (n = 500). The most commonly identified risk factors in the three groups were: greater than 40 years of age, immobility due to paresis or restrictions for mechanical ventilation, presumed infection, and presence of indwelling central venous catheter. There was no objective evidence of intracranial bleeding associated with pharmacologic VTE prophylaxis in VTE patients.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to determine symptomatic VTE incidence and to identify common risk factors by injury type in nontumor patients who are not routinely screened with venous duplex ultrasonography but receiving early IPC and LDUH. Further studies are needed to determine the overall incident of symptomatic and nonsymptomatic VTE and independent risk factors for VTE events in NSICU patients.