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Lühken R, Brattig N, Becker N. Introduction of invasive mosquito species into Europe and prospects for arbovirus transmission and vector control in an era of globalization. Infect Dis Poverty 2023; 12:109. [PMID: 38037192 PMCID: PMC10687857 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-023-01167-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mosquito research in Europe has a long history, primarily focused on malaria vectors. In recent years, invasive mosquito species like the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and the spread of arboviruses like dengue virus, chikungunya virus or bluetongue virus have led to an intensification of research and monitoring in Europe. The risk of further dissemination of exotic species and mosquito-borne pathogens is expected to increase with ongoing globalization, human mobility, transport geography, and climate warming. Researchers have conducted various studies to understand the ecology, biology, and effective control strategies of mosquitoes and associated pathogens. MAIN BODY Three invasive mosquito species are established in Europe: Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus), Japanese bush mosquito (Ae. japonicus), and Korean bush mosquito (Aedes koreicus). Ae. albopictus is the most invasive species and has been established in Europe since 1990. Over the past two decades, there has been an increasing number of outbreaks of infections by mosquito-borne viruses in particular chikungunya virus, dengue virus or Zika virus in Europe primary driven by Ae. albopictus. At the same time, climate change with rising temperatures results in increasing threat of invasive mosquito-borne viruses, in particular Usutu virus and West Nile virus transmitted by native Culex mosquito species. Effective mosquito control programs require a high level of community participation, going along with comprehensive information campaigns, to ensure source reduction and successful control. Control strategies for container breeding mosquitoes like Ae. albopictus or Culex species involve community participation, door-to-door control activities in private areas. Further measures can involve integration of sterile insect techniques, applying indigenous copepods, Wolbachia sp. bacteria, or genetically modified mosquitoes, which is very unlike to be practiced as standard method in the near future. CONCLUSIONS Climate change and globalization resulting in the increased establishment of invasive mosquitoes in particular of the Asian tiger mosquito Ae. albopictus in Europe within the last 30 years and increasing outbreaks of infections by mosquito-borne viruses warrants intensification of research and monitoring. Further, effective future mosquito control programs require increase in intense community and private participation, applying physical, chemical, biological, and genetical control activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renke Lühken
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Norbert Brattig
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Norbert Becker
- Institute for Dipterology, 67346, Speyer, Germany
- Institute for Organismal Studies (COS), University of Heidelberg, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany
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Sauer FG, Kiel E, Lühken R. Effects of mosquito resting site temperatures on the estimation of pathogen development rates in near-natural habitats in Germany. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:390. [PMID: 36280850 PMCID: PMC9594938 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05505-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental temperature is a key driver for the transmission risk of mosquito-borne pathogens. Epidemiological models usually relate to temperature data from standardized weather stations, but these data may not capture the relevant scale where mosquitoes experience environmental temperatures. As mosquitoes are assumed to spend most of their lifetime in resting sites, we analysed mosquito resting site patterns and the associated temperatures in dependence on the resting site type, resting site height and the surrounding land use. METHODS The study was conducted in 20 areas in near-natural habitats in Germany. Ten areas were studied in 2017, and another 10 in 2018. Each study area consisted of three sampling sites, where we collected mosquitoes and microclimatic data in artificial (= garden pop-up bags) and natural resting sites at three height levels between 0 and 6 m. Land use of the study sites was characterized as forest and meadows based on reclassified information of the CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) Land Cover categories. The hourly resting site temperatures and the data from the nearest weather station of the German meteorological service were used to model the duration of the extrinsic incubation period (EIP) of mosquito-borne pathogens. RESULTS Anopheles, Culex and Culiseta preferred artificial resting sites, while Aedes were predominantly collect in natural resting sites. Around 90% of the mosquitoes were collected from resting sites below 2 m. The mosquito species composition did not differ significantly between forest and meadow sites. Mean resting site temperatures near the ground were approximately 0.8 °C lower than at a height of 4-6 m, which changed the predicted mean EIP up to 5 days at meadow and 2 days at forest sites. Compared with temperature data from standardized weather stations, the resting site temperatures near the ground would prolong the mean estimated EIP 4 days at forest sites and 2 days at meadow sites. CONCLUSIONS The microclimate of mosquito resting sites differs from standardized meteorological data, which can influence the transmission of mosquito-borne pathogens. In a near-natural environment, colder temperatures at mosquitoes' preferred resting sites near the ground would prolong the EIP of mosquito-borne pathogens relative to data from weather stations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Gregor Sauer
- grid.424065.10000 0001 0701 3136Arbovirus Ecology, Department of Arbovirology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ellen Kiel
- grid.5560.60000 0001 1009 3608Aquatic Ecology and Nature Conservation, Carl Von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Renke Lühken
- grid.424065.10000 0001 0701 3136Arbovirus Ecology, Department of Arbovirology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
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Fuehrer HP, Morelli S, Unterköfler MS, Bajer A, Bakran-Lebl K, Dwużnik-Szarek D, Farkas R, Grandi G, Heddergott M, Jokelainen P, Knific T, Leschnik M, Miterpáková M, Modrý D, Petersen HH, Skírnisson K, Vergles Rataj A, Schnyder M, Strube C. Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: Current Risk of Spreading in Central and Northern Europe. Pathogens 2021; 10:1268. [PMID: 34684217 PMCID: PMC8537668 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past few decades, the relevance of Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens, causing cardiopulmonary and subcutaneous dirofilariosis in dogs and cats, and of Angiostrongylus vasorum, causing canine angiostrongylosis, has steadily increased in Central and Northern Europe. In this review, a summary of published articles and additional reports dealing with imported or autochthonous cases of these parasites is provided for Central (Austria, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Luxemburg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland) and Northern (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) Europe. Research efforts focusing on Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum have varied by country, and cross-border studies are few. The housing conditions of dogs, pet movements, the spread of competent vectors, and climate change are important factors in the spread of these nematodes. Dogs kept outside overnight are a major factor for the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. However, the establishment of invasive, diurnal, synanthropic, competent mosquito vectors such as Aedes albopictus may also influence the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. The drivers of the spread of A. vasorum remain not fully understood, but it seems to be influenced by habitats shared with wild canids, dog relocation, and possibly climatic changes; its pattern of spreading appears to be similar in different countries. Both Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum merit further monitoring and research focus in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.S.U.); (K.B.-L.)
| | - Simone Morelli
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Maria Sophia Unterköfler
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.S.U.); (K.B.-L.)
| | - Anna Bajer
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (A.B.); (D.D.-S.)
| | - Karin Bakran-Lebl
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.S.U.); (K.B.-L.)
| | - Dorota Dwużnik-Szarek
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (A.B.); (D.D.-S.)
| | - Róbert Farkas
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1078 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Giulio Grandi
- Section for Parasitology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden;
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mike Heddergott
- Department of Zoology, Musée National d’Historire Naturelle, 25, Rue Münster, 2160 Luxembourg, Luxembourg;
| | - Pikka Jokelainen
- Department of Bacteria, Parasites and Fungi, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark;
| | - Tanja Knific
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Michael Leschnik
- Clinical Unit of Internal Medicine Small Animals, Department/Universitätsklinik für Kleintiere und Pferde, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Martina Miterpáková
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia;
| | - David Modrý
- Biology Center, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic;
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources/CINeZ, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 16500 Praha-Suchdol, Czech Republic
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Heidi Huus Petersen
- Centre for Diagnostic, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark;
| | - Karl Skírnisson
- Institute for Experimental Pathology at Keldur, University of Iceland, Keldnavegur 3, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland;
| | - Aleksandra Vergles Rataj
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Manuela Schnyder
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland;
| | - Christina Strube
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany;
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Deksne G, Jokelainen P, Oborina V, Lassen B, Akota I, Kutanovaite O, Zaleckas L, Cīrule D, Tupīts A, Pimanovs V, Talijunas A, Krūmiņa A. The Zoonotic Parasite Dirofilaria repens Emerged in the Baltic Countries Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in 2008-2012 and Became Established and Endemic in a Decade. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 21:1-5. [PMID: 32986517 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2020.2651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The zoonotic parasite Dirofilaria repens has spread toward north in Europe, and cases of autochthonous dirofilariosis caused by D. repens have emerged in the Baltic countries Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. We conducted a review on the emergence of dirofilariosis in humans and domestic dogs in these three countries in northeastern Europe. Based on the available literature and reports, the first finding in the Baltic countries was made in Latvia in 2008, followed by the first in Lithuania in 2010, and the first in Estonia in 2012. In all three countries, further findings were reported soon after the first reports. By the end of 2019, autochthonous human D. repens infections had been described from Latvia and Lithuania, and autochthonous canine D. repens infections had been described from all three Baltic countries. While no epidemiological studies estimating prevalence or incidence of the human infections have been published from the three countries, a substantial proportion of investigated dogs have tested positive for microfilariae in studies performed in Latvia and Lithuania. Dirofilariosis is an emerging zoonosis in northern Europe, and the summarized data confirm that D. repens has become established and endemic in the Baltic countries. The available data do not provide a good overview of the situation, and further epidemiological studies are needed. Awareness about the recently emerged zoonotic parasite should be increased among medical doctors, veterinarians, and the general public. Managing this zoonotic infection is a public health challenge that needs to be addressed using a One Health approach. Investigating the spread of D. repens in the Baltic countries could be useful for better preparedness for the anticipated further spread to the Nordic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunita Deksne
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR," Riga, Latvia
- Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Pikka Jokelainen
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Bacteria, Parasites & Fungi, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Valentina Oborina
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Brian Lassen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ilze Akota
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Riga Stradiņš University, Riga, Latvia
| | | | - Linas Zaleckas
- Vilnius University Hospital Zalgiris Clinics, Vilnius, Lithuania
- Institute of Odontology, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Dina Cīrule
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR," Riga, Latvia
| | - Artjoms Tupīts
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Riga Stradiņš University, Riga, Latvia
| | - Viktors Pimanovs
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Riga Stradiņš University, Riga, Latvia
| | - Andrius Talijunas
- Vilnius University Hospital Zalgiris Clinics, Vilnius, Lithuania
- Institute of Odontology, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Angelika Krūmiņa
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR," Riga, Latvia
- Department of Infectology, Riga Stradiņš University, Riga, Latvia
- Riga East Clinical University Hospital, Riga, Latvia
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Lechner AM, Gastager H, Kern JM, Wagner B, Tappe D. Case Report: Successful Treatment of a Patient with Microfilaremic Dirofilariasis Using Doxycycline. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 102:844-846. [PMID: 32043447 PMCID: PMC7124902 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We report the case of a 56-year-old woman with microfilaremic dirofilariasis due to Dirofilaria repens, which is a very rare condition in humans. Of note, just one of six large-volume blood samples of this patient was positive for microfilariae. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the parasite gene determined the geographic origin of the causative helminth. The patient was treated successfully with doxycycline. This drug was chosen because of the patient's reluctance to the use of ivermectin and to provide an anthelmintic effect by targeting the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia present in most filarial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arno M Lechner
- Division Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Paracelsus Medizinische Privatuniversität Salzburg, Universitätsinstitut für Medizinisch-Chemische Labordiagnostik, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Jan Marco Kern
- Division Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Paracelsus Medizinische Privatuniversität Salzburg, Universitätsinstitut für Medizinisch-Chemische Labordiagnostik, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Birgit Wagner
- Abteilung für Medizinische Parasitologie, Institut für Spezifische Prophylaxe und Tropenmedizin, Zentrum für Pathophysiologie, Infektiologie und Immunologie, Medizinische Universität Wien, Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dennis Tappe
- Nationales Referenzzentrum für Tropische Infektionserreger, Bernhard-Nocht-Institut für Tropenmedizin, Hamburg, Germany
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Dolff S, Kehrmann J, Eisermann P, Dalbah S, Tappe D, Rating P. Case Report: Thelazia callipaeda Eye Infection: The First Human Case in Germany. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 102:350-351. [PMID: 31912777 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Thelazia callipaeda eye worm is a nematode transmitted by drosophilid flies not only primarily to carnivores and lagomorphs but also to humans. Only a few cases have been reported in Europe (Italy, France, and Portugal). Here, we report the first eye infection in a German patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Dolff
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Jan Kehrmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Philip Eisermann
- National Reference Center for Tropical Pathogens, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sami Dalbah
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Dennis Tappe
- National Reference Center for Tropical Pathogens, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Rating
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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Lindner AK, Tappe D, Gertler M, Equihua Martinez G, Richter J. A live worm emerging from the eyelid. J Travel Med 2018; 25:5074401. [PMID: 30124994 DOI: 10.1093/jtm/tay066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas K Lindner
- Institute of Tropical Medicine and International Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dennis Tappe
- National Reference Centre for Tropical Pathogens, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard-Nocht-Straße 74, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Gertler
- Institute of Tropical Medicine and International Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriela Equihua Martinez
- Institute of Tropical Medicine and International Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joachim Richter
- Institute of Tropical Medicine and International Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, Berlin, Germany
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Yilmaz E, Fritzenwanker M, Pantchev N, Lendner M, Wongkamchai S, Otranto D, Kroidl I, Dennebaum M, Le TH, Anh Le T, Ramünke S, Schaper R, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Poppert S, Krücken J. The Mitochondrial Genomes of the Zoonotic Canine Filarial Parasites Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) repens and Candidatus Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) hongkongensis Provide Evidence for Presence of Cryptic Species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005028. [PMID: 27727270 PMCID: PMC5058507 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cutaneous dirofilariosis is a canine mosquito-borne zoonosis that can cause larva migrans disease in humans. Dirofilaria repens is considered an emerging pathogen occurring with high prevalence in Mediterranean areas and many parts of tropical Asia. In Hong Kong, a second species, Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis, has been reported. The present study aimed to compare mitochondrial genomes from these parasites and to obtain population genetic information. Methods and Findings Complete mitochondrial genomes were obtained by PCR and Sanger sequencing or ILLUMINA sequencing for four worms. Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 sequences identified three as D. repens (all from Europe) and one as C. D. hongkongensis (from India). Mitochondrial genomes have the same organization as in other spirurid nematodes but a higher preference for thymine in the coding strand. Phylogenetic analysis was in contradiction to current taxonomy of the Onchocercidae but in agreement with a recent multi-locus phylogenetic analysis using both mitochondrial and nuclear markers. D. repens and C. D. hongkongensis sequences clustered together and were the common sister group to Dirofilaria immitis. Analysis of a 2.5 kb mitochondrial genome fragment from macrofilaria or canine blood samples from Europe (42), Thailand (2), India (1) and Vietnam (1) revealed only small genetic differences in the D. repens samples including all European and the Vietnam sample. The Indian C. D. hongkongensis and the two Thai samples formed separate clusters and differences were comparatively large. Conclusion Genetic differences between Dirofilaria spp. causing cutaneous disease can be considerable whereas D. repens itself was genetically quite homogenous. C. D. hongkongensis was identified for the first time from the Indian subcontinent. The full mitochondrial genome sequence strengthens the hypothesis that it represents an independent species and the Thai samples might represent another cryptic species, Candidatus Dirofilaria sp. ‘Thailand II’, or a quite divergent population of C. D. hongkongensis. The mitochondrial genomes of the zoonotic parasite species Dirofilaria repens and Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis were characterized and compared to the genomes of other filariae. The resulting phylogeny is largely in agreement with recent molecular data. C. D. hongkongensis was placed as a sister group to D. repens and both as a common sister to D. immitis. The large genetic difference between D. repens and C. D. hongkongensis further supports the hypothesis that both are distinct valid species. Two canine samples from Thailand that were diagnosed as D. repens are either from a C. D. hongkongensis population that is quite divergent from the Indian population or might represent another currently unrecognized species in the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esra Yilmaz
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Moritz Fritzenwanker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Giessen-Marburg-Langen, Campus Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | | | - Mathias Lendner
- Institut für Parasitologie, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sirichit Wongkamchai
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Domenico Otranto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Bari, Italy
| | - Inge Kroidl
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical Centre of the University of Munich (LMU); German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Dennebaum
- Section Clinical Tropical Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thanh Hoa Le
- Immunology Department, Institute of Biotechnology, Ha Noi, Viet Nam
| | - Tran Anh Le
- Department of Parasitology, Viet Nam Veterinary Medical University, Ha Noi, Viet Nam
| | - Sabrina Ramünke
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Sven Poppert
- University Medical Center, Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Bajer A, Rodo A, Mierzejewska EJ, Tołkacz K, Welc-Faleciak R. The prevalence of Dirofilaria repens in cats, healthy dogs and dogs with concurrent babesiosis in an expansion zone in central Europe. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:183. [PMID: 27595920 PMCID: PMC5011868 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0816-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dirofilaria repens is a mosquito-transmitted, filarial nematode parasitizing dogs, cats and other carnivores. Recently, this parasite has spread in central Europe, including Poland. The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of D. repens in cats and dogs in different regions of the country and to investigate the occurrence and consequences of co-infection with another fast-spreading vector-borne parasite, Babesia canis. RESULTS In the period 2013-2015, 147 blood samples from cats from central Poland and 257 blood samples from dogs from central, northern, southern and western Poland were collected. Prevalence of D. repens was determined by amplification and sequencing of the 12S rDNA gene fragment. Among dogs, 94 samples originated from clinically healthy dogs from central Poland (Masovia) and 58 samples originated from dogs that were infected with B. canis. Prevalence of D. repens was compared between these two groups of dogs. For the first time D. repens was identified in a cat from central Europe (0.7 % [95 % CL: 0-4.1 %]). The DNA of the filarial endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia was detected in two cats (1.4 % [95 % CL: 0-5.5 %]). In dogs, the parasite was detected only in samples from central Poland (Masovia) (local prevalence = 38 % [95 % CL: 25.9-51.8 %]). Prevalence of D. repens was significantly higher in dogs with babesiosis (90 % [95 % CL: 81.6-94.5 %]). Co-infections of D. repens and B. canis were confirmed by sequencing in 30 dogs with babesiosis, but no co-infections were identified in healthy dogs from Masovia. Statistical analyses of blood parameters revealed that dogs with co-infections suffered more severe anemia and thrombocytopenia, but presented milder changes in biochemical parameters (i.e. less elevated concentration of alkaline phosphatase [ALP] and serum urea) suggesting lower risk of hepatic or renal failure in comparison to dogs infected only with B. canis. CONCLUSIONS These findings are important due to the spread of dirofilariosis and babesiosis in central Europe, as microfilaraemic dogs seem to be more prone to babesiosis. The possible protective effect of the nematode infection against hepatic or renal failure in canine babesiosis and its mechanisms require further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bajer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Street, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Anna Rodo
- Department of Pathology and Veterinary Diagnostics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences- SGGW, 159c Nowoursynowska Street, 02-766, Warsaw, Poland.,Lab-Wet, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, ul. Wita Stwosza 30, 02-661, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa J Mierzejewska
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Street, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Tołkacz
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Street, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Renata Welc-Faleciak
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa Street, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
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10
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Bravo-Barriga D, Parreira R, Almeida AP, Calado M, Blanco-Ciudad J, Serrano-Aguilera FJ, Pérez-Martín JE, Sánchez-Peinado J, Pinto J, Reina D, Frontera E. Culex pipiens as a potential vector for transmission of Dirofilaria immitis and other unclassified Filarioidea in Southwest Spain. Vet Parasitol 2016; 223:173-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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11
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Liesner JM, Krücken J, Schaper R, Pachnicke S, Kohn B, Müller E, Schulze C, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G. Vector-borne pathogens in dogs and red foxes from the federal state of Brandenburg, Germany. Vet Parasitol 2016; 224:44-51. [PMID: 27270389 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Revised: 05/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Dirofilaria repens is endemic in eastern and southern European regions but was recently found in Germany in dogs, mosquitoes and one human patient. Since some of the positive dog and mosquito samples were collected in Brandenburg, it was aimed to systematically assess the prevalence of D. repens and other canine vector-borne pathogens in Brandenburg. Dog owners also received a questionnaire and were asked to provide more information about the dogs including travel history. In total, 1023 dog blood samples as well as 195 fox spleen and 179 fox blood samples were collected. DNA was analysed by PCR for the presence of filariae, piroplasms, anaplasmataceae and Rickettsia spp. Filariae were detected in six dogs (0.6%), two were positive for DNA from D. repens, two from Dirofilaria immitis and two from Acanthocheilonema reconditum. One of the D. repens positive dogs originated from an animal shelter in Brandenburg, but the origin of the other one remained unknown. Interestingly, both D. repens ITS-1 sequences showed 100% identity to a D. repens sample obtained from a Japanese woman that travelled in Europe and were 97% identical to a newly proposed species Dirofilaria sp. 'hongkongensis' described from Hong Kong. However, identity to other D. repens sequences from Thailand was considerably lower (81%). Identity of 12S rRNA and cytochrome oxidase I to D. repens samples from southern Europe was 99%. Due to the low number of Dirofilaria spp. positive dogs and since the origin of these was unknown, endemic occurrence of Dirofilaria in Brandenburg could not be confirmed. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was found in 15 dogs (1.5%), Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis in three dogs (0.3%) and E. canis in one dog (0.1%), which was co-infected with D. repens. Rickettsia spp. were detected in 8 dogs (0.8%), seven were Rickettsia raoultii and one was Rickettsia felis. To the author's knowledge, R. raoultii DNA was detected for the first time in dogs in Germany in this study and Candidatus N. mikurensis for the second time. In spleen samples of red foxes with 47.5% a high prevalence of piroplasms was found. Sequencing of 11 samples identified 10 as Theileria annae. Despite the high prevalence of this pathogen in its reservoir host, it was absent in dog samples. In one dog (0.1%), Babesia canis was detected but there was no further information about the dog's origin. Evaluation of the questionnaire identified a high proportion of dogs (74.2%, n=233) which was not protected by ectoparasiticides. Moreover, 21.2% (n=236) of the dogs originated from inland or abroad shelters, and therefore might potentially come from areas endemic for dirofilariosis or babesiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana M Liesner
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roland Schaper
- Bayer Animal Health GmbH, Alfred-Nobel-Str. 50, Monheim, 40789, Germany
| | - Stefan Pachnicke
- Bayer Vital GmbH, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Allee 70, 51373 Leverkusen, Germany
| | - Barbara Kohn
- Small Animal Clinic, Freie Universität Berlin, Oertzenweg 19, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Müller
- LABOKLIN GmbH & Co. KG, Steubenstr. 4, Bad Kissingen, 97688, Germany
| | - Christoph Schulze
- Landeslabor Berlin-Brandenburg, Gerhard-Neumann-Str. 2, Frankfurt (Oder), 15236, Germany
| | - Georg von Samson-Himmelstjerna
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
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12
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Matějů J, Chanová M, Modrý D, Mitková B, Hrazdilová K, Žampachová V, Kolářová L. Dirofilaria repens: emergence of autochthonous human infections in the Czech Republic (case reports). BMC Infect Dis 2016; 16:171. [PMID: 27094256 PMCID: PMC4837637 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1505-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human dirofilariasis is a zoonotic infection that continues to spread to previously unaffected areas of Europe. In the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic (CR), imported as well as autochthonous canine infections were recorded in the last decade, and parasite DNA was detected in mosquitoes of Aedes vexans. In the present paper, human Dirofilaria infections are reported from the country for the first time. Case presentation The samples from five patients with suspected tissue helminthiases were investigated. In particular cases, nematodes were isolated from various tissues including skin of lower leg, soft tissues of finger, subcutaneous tissue of hypogastrium, lymph node and peritoneum. The diagnosis was based on light microscopic morphology and/or DNA analysis of the worms. In addition, ELISA examination of patients’ sera for anti-filaria IgG antibodies was performed. Conclusions In the CR, five cases of human dirofilariasis caused by Dirofilaria repens were recorded during 2010–2014 (species determination for three of them was confirmed besides morphological also by DNA analysis). At least, three of the cases were of autochthonous origin (the patients are Czech citizens residing in South Moravian Region who have never travelled abroad). The findings confirm the natural setting of D. repens in South Moravian Region of the CR. Dirofilariasis should be therefore considered as endemic in this area where it may represent a significant risk factor for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Matějů
- Institute of Immunology and Microbiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.,National Reference Laboratory for Tissue Helminthoses, General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marta Chanová
- Institute of Immunology and Microbiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Modrý
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Central European Institute for Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Mitková
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Central European Institute for Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Hrazdilová
- Central European Institute for Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Víta Žampachová
- First Department of Pathological Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University - St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Libuše Kolářová
- Institute of Immunology and Microbiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic. .,National Reference Laboratory for Tissue Helminthoses, General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.
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13
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Härtwig V, Schulze C, Pfeffer M, Daugschies A, Dyachenko V. No evidence of Dirofilaria repens infection in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) from Brandenburg, Germany. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:867-71. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-015-4820-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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14
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Härtwig V, Daugschies A, Dyachenko V. [Dirofilaria repens-infection in a dog in central Germany without any history of travel]. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2015; 43:181-7. [PMID: 25966649 DOI: 10.15654/tpk-140562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A mixed breed dog was presented with dyspnoea and fever. In the purulent thorax aspirate, a nematode larva was found during the cytological examination. Subsequent diagnostic tests revealed an infection with Dirofilaria repens, which was probably acquired autochthonously in central Germany. Moxidectin was administered every 4 weeks for 6 months and shown to be effective as indicated by subsequent blood examinations. This case report shows that infection with Dirofilaria repens is possible in Germany and can be treated successfully.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Härtwig
- Vera Härtwig, Institut für Parasitologie, Veterinärmedizinische Fakultät, Universität Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken, 04103 Leipzig, E-Mail:
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15
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Abstract
Onchocerca lupi, a nematode parasite infecting dogs and cats with a hitherto unknown arthropod vector, is also being recognised as a parasite also responsible for human eye infections. Here we describe a case of human eye infection diagnosed molecularly by nematode 12S rDNA PCR in a German patient who had travelled to Tunisia and Turkey. The patient recovered after treatment with antibiotic and anti-inflammatory therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bergua
- Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Clinic, Friedrich Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
- Both authors contributed equally to this study
- Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - B Hohberger
- Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
- Both authors contributed equally to this study
- Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Clinic, Friedrich Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - J Held
- Mikrobiologisches Institut, Friedrich Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
- Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - B Muntau
- Bernhard Nocht Institute, Hamburg, Germany
| | - E Tannich
- Bernhard Nocht Institute, Hamburg, Germany
| | - D Tappe
- Bernhard Nocht Institute, Hamburg, Germany
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16
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Baptista-Fernandes T, Rodrigues M, Domingues D, Monteiro L, Paixão P, Pereira P, Tavares R, Rodrigues P, Maurício I, Belo S, Toscano C. Dirofilariasis by Dirofilaria repens: an imported case and a brief review. Parasitol Int 2015; 64:261-3. [PMID: 25769814 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Human infections caused by Dirofilaria repens, a cosmopolitan zoonotic parasitosis endemic in Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia still is an underdiagnosed infection due to parasite identification difficulties. Here, we report the first human case of subcutaneous dirofilariasis by D. repens diagnosed in Portugal. This was probably an imported case from India, as judged by epidemiological and clinical data. With this presentation we aim to alert clinicians for the emergence of vector-borne zoonoses associated with global warming and international travel. This case showed that differential diagnosis of D. repens in subcutaneous nodules is needed, in order to avoid further complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Baptista-Fernandes
- Laboratório de Microbiologia Clínica e Biologia Molecular, Serviço de Patologia Clínica, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Ocidental, Hospital Egas Moniz, Rua da Junqueira no 126, 1349-019 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Manuel Rodrigues
- Biopremier, S.A. Edifício Teclabs, Campus da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Dulce Domingues
- Biopremier, S.A. Edifício Teclabs, Campus da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Lucília Monteiro
- Laboratório de Anatomia Patológica, Hospital Egas Moniz, Rua da Junqueira no 126, 1349-019 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Paulo Paixão
- Centro de Estudos de Doenças Crónicas, CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, no 130, 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Patrícia Pereira
- Serviço Patologia Clinica, Hospital Beatriz Ângelo, Avenida Carlos Teixeira, no 3, 2674-514 Loures, Portugal.
| | - Raquel Tavares
- Serviço de Infecciologia, Hospital Beatriz Ângelo, Avenida Carlos Teixeira, no 3, 2674-514 Loures, Portugal.
| | - Paulo Rodrigues
- Serviço de Infecciologia, Hospital Beatriz Ângelo, Avenida Carlos Teixeira, no 3, 2674-514 Loures, Portugal.
| | - Isabel Maurício
- Unidade Parasitologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira no 100, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Silvana Belo
- Unidade Parasitologia Médica, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Rua da Junqueira no 100, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Cristina Toscano
- Laboratório de Microbiologia Clínica e Biologia Molecular, Serviço de Patologia Clínica, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Ocidental, Hospital Egas Moniz, Rua da Junqueira no 126, 1349-019 Lisboa, Portugal.
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17
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Klintebjerg K, Petersen E, Pshenichnaya NY, Ermakova LA, Nagorny SA, Larsen CS. Periorbital Dirofilaria repens imported to Denmark: A human case report. IDCases 2014; 2:25-6. [PMID: 26793444 PMCID: PMC4672625 DOI: 10.1016/j.idcr.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Dirofilaria repens, a filarial nematode of dogs and other carnivores, can accidentally infect humans. The infection occurs widely throughout Europe. We report a case of D. repens in a Danish woman who had been traveling to Crete. A nematode was visualized on examination and ELISA was positive for antibodies against D. repens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eskild Petersen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Clinical Microbiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
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18
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Sassnau R, Daugschies A, Lendner M, Genchi C. Climate suitability for the transmission of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Germany. Vet Parasitol 2014; 205:239-45. [PMID: 25095735 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Recently concerns are increasing that dirofilarial nematodes may spread from endemic areas in southern, eastern and central Europe to countries in northern regions of Europe. The increasing number of autochthonous cases of canine Dirofilaria repens infections in Germany indicates that worms of this genus may invade new areas, and climate change may be a key factor in this scenario. Thus analysis of long term development of regional temperature is a pivotal factor in risk analysis related to transmission of these worms. Such information is important for suggestions of counteracting strategies, such as definition of periods of increased transmission risk and, consequently, time slots most suited for preventative measures. In this study, mean daily temperature data from 34 geographical clustered weather stations representing all parts of Germany were analyzed. It is concluded that the increasing trend for average daily temperatures observed in the period from 1984 to 2013 has led to climatic conditions that allow the completion of dirofilarial life cycles in large parts of Germany between May and October. Autochthonous infection with D. repens is already established in some regions and targeted diagnosis and medical prophylaxis is advisable for dogs assumedly exposed during risk of transmission periods. It appears likely that global warming will support further spread of D. repens. Furthermore for the population of dogs the spread of the more pathogenic species D. immitis in hitherto non-endemic Germany is a potential risk if mean temperatures rise to a level suitable for parasite development in the abundant vector mosquitoes during the warmer seasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sassnau
- Hasenheide 65, D-10967 Berlin, Germany.
| | - A Daugschies
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 35 D-04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - M Lendner
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 35 D-04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - C Genchi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences and Public Health, University of Milan, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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