Effects of Sample Preparation on Chemistry, Cytotoxicity, and Inflammatory Responses Induced by Air Particulate Matter

Methanol is used for high-efficiency extraction of air particulate (PM) mass from the sampling substrate in the high-volume cascade impactor. Sonication is needed during extraction and when dissolving dried PM samples in liquids used in exposure studies. We investigated the effects of these procedures on the PM chemistry and PM-induced cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in mouse macrophages. Untreated and methanol-treated ambient air reference PM samples (SRM1649a, EHC-93) and diesel PM (SRM1650) were tested after different sonication durations (530 min). Furthermore, the time dependency of the responses to SRM1649a, EHC-93, and a fine PM sample from Helsinki was investigated. Methanol pretreatment increased on average by 24% and 21% the recovery of water-soluble metals from SRM1649a and EHC-93, but not SRM1650. It had no systematic effect on the recoveries of inorganic secondary ions (NO3-, SO4(2-), NH4+) or the sum of genotoxic PAH compounds from the three reference samples. Nitric oxide (NO) response to SRM1650 was strongly enhanced by methanol pretreatment, whereas the cytotoxic or inflammatory responses to the ambient air PM samples (EHC-93, SRM1649a) were only slightly modified. Sonication duration was a modifying factor only in connection to SRM1650. Maximal interleukin (IL)-1 production was observed earlier (8 h) than maximal tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha and IL-6 productions (24 h), which indicates the importance to know the optimal time points for measurement of the selected response parameters. In conclusion, methanol extraction and reasonable sonication duration are not likely to modify the cytotoxic and inflammatory potency of ambient air PM samples, but some responses to air PM, rich in organic compounds, can be modified.

In vitro inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of size-segregated particulate samples collected during long-range transport of wildfire smoke to Helsinki

The impact of long-range transport (LRT) episodes of wildfire smoke on the inflammogenic and cytotoxic activity of urban air particles was investigated in the mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages. The particles were sampled in four size ranges using a modified Harvard high-volume cascade impactor, and the samples were chemically characterized for identification of different emission sources. The particulate mass concentration in the accumulation size range (PM(1-0.2)) was highly increased during two LRT episodes, but the contents of total and genotoxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in collected particulate samples were only 10-25% of those in the seasonal average sample. The ability of coarse (PM(10-2.5)), intermodal size range (PM(2.5-1)), PM(1-0.2) and ultrafine (PM(0.2)) particles to cause cytokine production (TNFalpha, IL-6, MIP-2) reduced along with smaller particle size, but the size range had a much smaller impact on induced nitric oxide (NO) production and cytotoxicity or apoptosis. The aerosol particles collected during LRT episodes had a substantially lower activity in cytokine production than the corresponding particles of the seasonal average period, which is suggested to be due to chemical transformation of the organic fraction during aging. However, the episode events were associated with enhanced inflammogenic and cytotoxic activities per inhaled cubic meter of air due to the greatly increased particulate mass concentration in the accumulation size range, which may have public health implications.

Chemical and in vitro toxicologic characterization of wintertime and springtime urban-air particles with an aerodynamic diameter below 10 microm in Helsinki

OBJECTIVES

The chemical composition and toxicity of wintertime urban-air particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of <10 microm (PM10), derived mostly from long-range transport and local combustion sources, were compared with those of springtime PM10 derived mostly from the resuspension of road dust.

METHODS

Water-soluble ions and elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were analyzed from seasonally pooled PM10 samples collected at a busy traffic site in Helsinki in 1999. These PM10 samples were also tested for cytotoxicity [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide test] and the production of proinflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin 6 (IL-6)] and nitric oxide (NO) in the mouse macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. Their oxidative capacity and the associated DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) damage were investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance and the formation of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-DG) in isolated calf thymus DNA, respectively.

RESULTS

The late wintertime and springtime PM10 had similar compositions of water-soluble ions and elements, but the winter PM10 had a higher content of PAH. The spring PM10 was a much more potent inducer of TNF-alpha and IL-6 production than the winter PM10 was, but there were no consistent differences in cytotoxic potency. In contrast, the winter PM10 was a significantly more potent inducer of NO production and 8-OH-DG formation. The large cytokine responses to the spring PM10 were caused by its insoluble fraction and largely inhibited by the endotoxin antagonist polymyxin B. The transition metal chelator deferoxamine did not modify the proinflammatory or cytotoxic responses to the PM10 samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The toxicity profile of urban-air PM10 changed with season in a subarctic climate. Particulate-bound endotoxin from soil gram-negative bacteria is suggested as a highly proinflammatory constituent of springtime resuspended road dust.