Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease Associates with Upregulated Angiopoietin and Downregulated Hypoxia-Inducible Factor

Background:

Vascular pathology is a common feature in patients with advanced Alzheimer’s disease, with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and microvascular changes commonly observed at autopsies and in genetic mouse models. However, despite a plethora of studies addressing the possible impact of CAA on brain vasculature, results have remained contradictory, showing reduced, unchanged, or even increased capillary densities in human and rodent brains overexpressing amyloid-β in Alzheimer’s disease and Down’s syndrome.

Objective:

We asked if CAA is associated with changes in angiogenetic factors or receptors and if so, whether this would translate into morphological alterations in pericyte coverage and vessel density.

Methods:

We utilized the transgenic mice carrying the Arctic (E693G) and Swedish (KM670/6701NL) amyloid precursor protein which develop severe CAA in addition to parenchymal plaques.

Results:

The main finding of the present study was that CAA in Tg-ArcSwe mice is associated with upregulated angiopoietin and downregulated hypoxia-inducible factor. In the same mice, we combined immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy to quantify the extent of CAA and investigate to which degree vessels associated with amyloid plaques were pathologically affected. We found that despite a severe amount of CAA and alterations in several angiogenetic factors in Tg-ArcSwe mice, this was not translated into significant morphological alterations like changes in pericyte coverage or vessel density.

Conclusion:

Our data suggest that CAA does not impact vascular density but might affect capillary turnover by causing changes in the expression levels of angiogenetic factors.

Characterization of omega-3 tablets

Omega-3 nutraceuticals are extensively used as health supplements worldwide. Various administration forms for delivery of omega-3 are available. However, the niche omega-3 tablets have so far remained unexplored. In this work tablets containing 25-40% (w/w) omega-3 oil as triglycerides or ethyl esters were prepared utilizing a direct compaction grade powder with β-cyclodextrin as encapsulating agent. It was found that powders with up to 35% (w/w) triglyceride oil and 30% (w/w) ethyl ester oil, respectively, can be directly compressed into tablets of excellent quality. Physical properties of omega-3 containing powders and tablets are described. The powder X-ray diffractograms of the powders and crushed tablets show evidence of the formation of new crystalline phases not present in β-cyclodextrin. In addition, (1)H NMR data suggest that the ethyl esters form inclusion complexes with β-cyclodextrin. Compaction of other, commercially available, omega-3 powders was performed as a comparison and deemed unsuccessful.

Compactible powders of omega-3 and β-cyclodextrin

Omega-3 fatty acids are used in both nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals in the form of triglycerides and ethyl esters. Administration forms available for omega-3 include bulk oil, soft gel capsules, emulsions and some powder compositions. Cyclodextrins are substances well known for their ability to encapsulate lipophilic molecules. In the present work, powders loaded with omega-3 oil, ranging from 10 to 40% (w/w), have been prepared by vacuum drying, freeze drying or spray granulation of aqueous mixtures of omega-3 oil and β-cyclodextrin. The powders were found to be partially crystalline by powder X-ray diffraction and to contain crystalline phases not present in pure β-cyclodextrin, indicating true complexation. The compactibility of the powders has been explored, revealing that a dry and compactible powder can be prepared from various omega-3 oils and β-cyclodextrin. Spray granulation was found to be the superior drying method for the preparation of compactible powders.

Hydrogen bond architecture in crystal structures of N-alkylated hydrophobic amino acids

The crystal structures of N-alkylated hydrophobic amino acids, including five new compounds, show robust and characteristic hydrogen bond patterns.

N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-O-allyl-L-seryl-α-aminoisobutyryl-L-valine methyl ester: a protected tripeptide with an allylated serine residue

The title compound [systematic name (6S,12S)-methyl 6-(allyloxymethyl)-12-isopropyl-2,2,9,9-tetramethyl-4,7,10-trioxo-3-oxa-5,8,11-triazatridecan-13-oate], C(21)H(37)N(3)O(7), containing the little studied O-allyl-L-serine residue [Ser(All)], crystallizes in the monoclinic space group C2 with one molecule in the asymmetric unit. The compound is an analogue of the Ser140-Val142 segment of the water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4). It forms a distorted type-II β-turn with a P(II)-3(10L)-P(II) backbone conformation (P(II) is polyproline II). The overall backbone conformation is markedly different from that of the CO(Pro139)-Val142 stretch of rat AQP4, but is quite similar to the corresponding segment of human AQP4, despite significant differences at the level of the individual residues. The side chain of the Ser(All) residue adopts a gauche conformation relative to the backbone CO-C(α) and C(α)-N bonds. The H atoms of the two CH(2) groups in the Ser(All) side chain are almost eclipsed. The crystal packing of the title compound is divided into one-molecule-thick layers, each layer having a hydrophilic core and distinct hydrophobic interfaces on either side.

N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-α-aminoisobutyryl-α-aminoisobutyric acid methyl ester: two polymorphic forms in the space group P2(1)/n

The title compound (systematic name: methyl 2-{2-[(tert-butoxycarbonyl)amino]-2-methylpropanamido}-2-methylpropanoate), C(14)H(26)N(2)O(5), (I), crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2(1)/n in two polymorphic forms, each with one molecule in the asymmetric unit. The molecular conformation is essentially the same in both polymorphs, with the α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) residues adopting ϕ and ψ values characteristic of α-helical and mixed 3(10)- and α-helical conformations. The helical handedness of the C-terminal residue (Aib2) is opposite to that of the N-terminal residue (Aib1). In contrast to (I), the closely related peptide Boc-Aib-Aib-OBn (Boc is tert-butoxycarbonyl and Bn is benzyl) adopts an α(L)-P(II) backbone conformation (or the mirror image conformation). Compound (I) forms hydrogen-bonded parallel β-sheet-like tapes, with the carbonyl groups of Aib1 and Aib2 acting as hydrogen-bond acceptors. This seems to represent an unusual packing for a protected dipeptide containing at least one α,α-disubstituted residue.

Structural and pharmacological effects of ring-closing metathesis in peptides

Applications of ring-closing alkene metathesis (RCM) in acyclic α- and β-peptides and closely related systems are reviewed, with a special emphasis on the structural and pharmacological effects of cyclization by RCM.