[Is it possible to answer the question about the beginning of human life?]

The question of the beginning of human life is specified in this article by explaining the different meanings of the expression "human life". Then it is explained that every discussion about this beginning is always contextual and thus one can detect different "beginnings" of human life. Therefore the question raised into the title can only find part answer and none branch neither in the field of exact sciences nor in the field of humanities can claim to have a position of monopole. Finally, one tries to demonstrate that even if the question of the beginning of life could find an answer, the normative conflicts that would appear at that moment, wouldn't automatically be solved, nor settled.

Ethical and legal aspects of enteral nutrition

European ethical and legal positions with regard to EN vary slightly from country to country but are based on a common tradition derived from Graeco Roman ideas, religious thought and events of the 20th century. The Hippocratic tradition is based on 'beneficience' (do good) and 'non-maleficience' (do no harm). Religious thinking is based upon the presumption of providing food and drink by whatever means unless burden outweighs benefit. The concept of 'autonomy' (the patients right to decide) arose following in the decades after the Second World War and is enshrined in Human Rights law. The competent patient has the right to participate in decision making and to refuse treatment although the doctor is not obliged to give treatment which he or she considers futile or against the patient's interests. The incompetent patient is protected by law. The fourth principle is that of 'justice' i.e. equal access to healthcare for all. The law regards withholding and withdrawing treatment as the same. It also defines the provision of food and drink by mouth as basic care and feeding by artificial means as a medical treatment. It requires doctors to act in the best interests of the patient.

[The stem cell debate: in favor of ethical clarification]

Stem cell research raises ethical issues, the grounds for which however are fairly unclear. As a form of fundamental research, it should be assessed according to the same classical ethical criteria. The strategic scientific question of the priority of adult stem cells versus embryonic stem cells cannot be dogmatically answered in advance, but rather contextually. The question of the moral status of the embryo outside the woman's body will always involve personal beliefs. But legislation will have to regulate this issue from a "middle-of-the-road" position reflecting the convictions of most of the citizens (e.g., embryos will be protected, but not the same as already-born persons).

[Ethics and genetic diagnosis]

The implications of current ethical concerns in the field of genetic research and applications are discussed. Genetic diagnosis is perceived as ethically ambivalent both in general and in its individual applications. Genetic testing, by inviting participation, reflects this ambivalence and can be taken as the basis for both a "right to know" and a "right not to know". The connection between prenatal diagnosis and abortion is also complex and cannot be regarded as ethically clearcut. In these circumstances the legislator must exercise caution in regulating genetic diagnosis in its present state of development.

The Swiss Technology Assessment project on xenotransplantation

The Swiss Technology Assessment (TA) project on xenotransplantation is intended to study the opportunities and risks of this technique, recognizing the input of those involved in and those affected by it. This also implies taking into account the clinicoscientific, social, ethical, economic, and legal aspects. The situation in Switzerland is analyzed in depth, with reference to the acceptance, ethics, and existing federal legislation pertinent to xenotransplantation. Apart from consultation with experts from various specialized areas, a written questionnaire was sent to more than 100 organizations, institutions, companies, and individuals. The resulting assessments range from clear approval to complete rejection of the notion of xenotransplantation. Even acceptance was granted only on condition that criteria such as security (minimum risk of infection) and respect for human dignity and animal protection issues are respected. Such criteria are generally accepted, but if concrete conclusions must be drawn, we must recognize that opinions vary in today's discussions on ethics in Switzerland. It is commonly agreed that animals are not objects, but their precise status is not clear. Moreover, there are no patented ethical "recipes" for handling risks.

[A scientific discourse on theories of morals and ethics]

An academic discourse on ethical and moral theory The papers in this issue of Pflege were delivered by the authors at a conference on Moral Action, held in Osnabrück on Nov. 11th 1994. In the argument which follows, Marianne Arndt's critique points to the fact that Bondolfi's paper is based mainly on Kohlberg's theory and offers, in contrast, research by Gilligan. Bondolfi stresses that men and women are equally capable of rational and emotionally motivated action. Being "human" is a characteristic of members of both genders.

[Moral action in nursing. Considerations from an ethical viewpoint]

Moral action in nursing: reflections from an ethical point of view Does nursing need specific ethics? This question will be answered in two stages. First the history of how the profession came into being will be summarised. In the second stage the opportunities and the limitations will be touched on, regarding the shape of the profession. A short presentation of Kohlberg's theory is the starting point for an attempt to reconstruct the origins of moral competence. How far nursing will accept this is questioned. Ambivalence in the ideology of the caring-relationship is examined.

[Ethical aspects of the problems of nutrition of terminally ill patients]

This contribution deals initially with the question whether or not the problem to be solved is an ethical one and, if so, wherein the ethical controversy consists. Following that, the wide spectrum of cultural significances of food and eating is outlined. In a last part, the limits of normative management are pointed out. The positive contribution of ethical thinking is not so much to be seen in setting up rules but in conveying fundamental attitudes which enable us to let our actions be governed by wisdom.

[Ethical aspects of AIDS information and prevention]

Ethical implications are inherent to any information policy in conjunction with AIDS. It is difficult, in this context, to differentiate clearly between bio-medical recommendations and suggestions directly oriented to sexual behaviour. In the strict context of prevention policy, the author attempts to demonstrate how both individual freedom and preventive efficacy can be maximized simultaneously.