THE USE OF A STAGGERED HERRINGBONE MICROMIXER FOR THE PREPARATION OF RIGID LIPOSOMAL FORMULATIONS ALLOWS EFFICIENT ENCAPSULATION OF ANTIGEN AND ADJUVANT

Anionic liposomal formulations have previously shown to have intrinsic tolerogenic capacity and these properties have been related to the rigidity of the particles. The combination of highly rigid anionic liposomes to deliver tolerogenic adjuvants and antigen peptides has potential applications for the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. However, the preparation of these highly rigid anionic liposomes using traditional methods such as lipid film hydration presents problems in terms of scalability and loading efficiency of some costly tolerogenic adjuvants like 1-α,25-dihydroxyvitaminD3. Here we propose the use of an off-the-shelf staggered herringbone micromixer for the preparation of these formulations and performed a systematic study on the effect of temperature and flow conditions on the size and polydispersity index of the formulations. Furthermore, we show that the system allows for the encapsulations of a wide variety of peptides and significantly higher loading efficiency of 1-α,25-dihydroxyvitaminD3 compared to the traditional lipid film hydration method, without compromising their non-inflammatory interaction with dendritic cells. Therefore, the microfluidics method presented here is a valuable tool for the preparation of highly rigid tolerogenic liposomes in a fast, size-tuneable and scalable manner.

High-affinity antigen association to cationic liposomes via coiled coil-forming peptides induces a strong antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell response

Liposomes are widely investigated as vaccine delivery systems, but antigen loading efficiency can be low. Moreover, adsorbed antigen may rapidly desorb under physiological conditions. Encapsulation of antigens overcomes the latter problem but results in significant antigen loss during preparation and purification of the liposomes. Here, we propose an alternative attachment method, based on a complementary heterodimeric coiled coil peptide pair pepK and pepE. PepK was conjugated to cholesterol (yielding CPK) and pepE was covalently linked to model antigen OVA323 (yielding pepE-OVA323). CPK was incorporated in the lipid bilayer of cationic liposomes (180 nm in size). Antigen was associated more efficiently to functionalized liposomes (Kd 166 nM) than to cationic liposomes (Kd not detectable). In vivo co-localization of antigen and liposomes was strongly increased upon CPK-functionalization (35% -> 80%). CPK-functionalized liposomes induced 5-fold stronger CD4⁺ T-cell proliferation than non-functionalized liposomes in vitro. Both formulations were able to induce strong CD4⁺ T-cell expansion in mice, but more IFN-y and IL-10 production was observed after immunization with functionalized liposomes. In conclusion, antigen association via coiled coil peptide pair increased co-localization of antigen and liposomes, increased CD4⁺ T-cell proliferation in vitro and induced a stronger CD4⁺ T-cell response in vivo.

Interactions of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine with ceramide-based mixtures

The outermost layer of the skin, the stratum corneum (SC), acts as the natural physical barrier. The SC consists of corneocytes embedded in a crystalline lipid matrix consisting of ceramides, free fatty acids and cholesterol. Although phospholipids are frequently present in topical formulations, no detailed information is reported on the interactions between phospholipids and SC lipids. The aim of this study was to examine the interactions between a model phospholipid, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and synthetic ceramide-based mixtures (referred to as SC lipids). (Perdeuterated) DPPC was mixed with SC lipids and the lipid organization and mixing properties were examined. The studies revealed that DPPC participates in the same lattice as SC lipids thereby enhancing a hexagonal packing. Even at a high DPPC level, no phase separated pure DPPC was observed. When a DPPC containing formulation is applied to the skin surface it must partition into the SC lipid matrix prior to any mixing with the SC lipids. To mimic this, DPPC was applied on top of a SC lipid membrane. DPPC applied in a liquid crystalline state was able to mix with the SC lipids and participated in the same lattice as the SC lipids. However, when DPPC was applied in a rippled gel-state very limited partitioning of DPPC into the SC lipid matrix occurred. Thus, when applied to the skin, liquid crystalline DPPC will have very different interactions with SC lipids than DPPC in a (rippled-)gel phase.

Design of chimaeric polymersomes

We discuss the development of hierarchical polymer particles, or variegated polymersome composites, in which at least two different components are phase separated within one polymersome chimaera. We briefly discuss the present status in experimental polymersome research, and then discuss a speculative design strategy, based on mesoscopic simulations with a dynamical variant of polymer self-consistent field theory (Mesodyn). The main conclusion is that the counter-intuitive co-assembly of demixing block copolymers is the key in controlling hierarchical structures on a mesoscopic scale. This is the classical paradox of a chimaera: the constituents live in the same scaffold, but apart. Block copolymers beyond a certain length will always split the assembly, and without further precautions, polymer based chimaerae are intrinsically unstable. To this end, we propose the application of a branched block copolymer as composite compatibilizer, glueing the separate domains together, and thereby stabilizing the chimaeric polymersome.

A percutaneous device as model to study the in vivo performance of implantable amperometric glucose sensors

Glucose kinetics were investigated in subcutaneous tissue of rabbits, in which a percutaneous device was implanted. The device was used for collection of tissue fluid and as carrier of an amperometric glucose sensor. Changes in glycaemia were reflected in subcutaneous tissue fluid. However, a limited number of responses of the implanted sensors were observed. Histologic evaluation showed thin fibrous capsules surrounding the implants. Accumulations of inflammatory cells were observed inside the subcutaneous chamber. The experiments again showed that changes in blood glucose concentration can be measured in subcutaneous tissue fluid collected with a percutaneous device. Nevertheless, implanted glucose sensors could not reliably monitor these changes. Supported by our histological observations and sufficient in vitro performance, we suppose that the cellular reaction to the sensor plays an important role in this poor in vivo performance. In combination with adsorption of tissue fluid proteins, this results in a reversible deactivation of implanted sensors. The exact mechanisms involved in this process are currently unknown and need further investigation.

Influence of inflammatory cells and serum on the performance of implantable glucose sensors

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the influence of polymorphonuclear granulocytes on the performance of uncoated and cellulose acetate/Nafion coated amperometric glucose sensors in vitro. The response of these sensors was also investigated in serum. Uncoated and coated sensors showed lower sensitivities to glucose, with a significant drift in sensor output upon exposure to serum or leukocytes. Although the use of a coating resulted in higher sensitivity, the progressive loss of output was not completely prevented. Stimulated granulocytes were shown to excrete components, probably catalase and myeloperoxidase, which consumed the hydrogen peroxide formed by the oxidation of glucose. In addition, adsorbed serum proteins formed a diffusional barrier for glucose. Furthermore, serum was found to contain low-molecular weight components that alone inhibited glucose oxidase activity. Based on preliminary electrochemical results, we postulate that rabbit serum contains oxidizing substrates that compete with molecular oxygen for the acceptance of electrons from the oxidized enzyme. Consequently, future efforts should be aimed at elucidating the mechanisms involved in the interference of unknown serum components with electron transfer. In addition, further investigations have to be performed to develop an outer membrane that minimizes protein adsorption as well as the actions of inflammatory cells.

Biocompatibility evaluation of sol-gel coatings for subcutaneously implantable glucose sensors

The objective of the current investigation is to determine the soft-tissue biocompatibility of sol-gel matrices which can be used to optimize the properties of implantable glucose sensors. The biocompatibility of sol-gel matrices with heparin, dextran sulphate, Nafion, polyethylene glycol, and polystyrene sulphonate was examined in vitro in simulated body fluid and with cell culture experiments using human dermal fibroblasts. Finally, an in vivo study was performed. Therefore, sol-gel coated polystyrene discs were inserted subcutaneously in the back of rabbits. After 4 and 12 weeks, the implants with surrounding tissue were retrieved and processed histologically. In simulated body fluid, the formation of a granular calcium phosphate precipitate was observed. Cell proliferation on polyethylene glycol, Nafion, and heparin coated substrates was comparable to control samples and significantly higher than on dextran sulphate and polystyrene sulphate coated substrates. Light microscopic evaluation of the retrieved in vivo samples showed a fair tissue reaction to all materials. Histomorphometric analysis demonstrated that there were no differences in tissue response to the different sol-gel coatings. In conclusion, sol-gel matrices exhibit a fair biocompatibility both in vitro and in vivo. These results will form the basis for further research into the real merits of sol-gel coatings in optimizing the properties of subcutaneously implantable glucose sensors.

Performance of subcutaneously implanted glucose sensors: a review

Despite a considerable amount of research attributed to the development of an implantable glucose sensor, to date there is no clinically applicable concept for continuous glucose monitoring. Investigations to validate the subcutaneous tissue for continuous glucose sensing mostly comprise short-term implantations of glucose sensors. Most implanted glucose sensors showed a significant decay in sensitivity over the implantation period. This bioinstability was not to be expected from the in vitro performance of the sensors. In this article, the influence of possible failure mechanisms on the poor in vivo performance of subcutaneously implanted glucose sensors is reviewed.