Expert proposal to analyze the combination of aortic and mitral regurgitation in multiple valvular heart disease by comprehensive echocardiography

The assessment of valvular pathologies in multiple valvular heart disease by echocardiography remains challenging. Data on echocardiographic assessment-especially in patients with combined aortic and mitral regurgitation-are rare in the literature. The proposed integrative approach using semi-quantitative parameters to grade the severity of regurgitation often yields inconsistent findings and results in misinterpretation. Therefore, this proposal aims to focus on a practical systematic echocardiographic analysis to understand the pathophysiology and hemodynamics in patients with combined aortic and mitral regurgitation. The quantitative approach of grading the regurgitant severity of each compound might be helpful in elucidating the scenario in combined aortic and mitral regurgitation. To this end, both the individual regurgitant fraction of each valve and the total regurgitant fraction of both valves must be determined. This work also outlines the methodological issues and limitations of the quantitative approach by echocardiography. Finally, we present a proposal that enables verifiable assessment of regurgitant fractions. The overall interpretation of echocardiographic results includes the symptomatology of patients with combined aortic and mitral regurgitation and the individual treatment options with respect to their individual risk. In summary, a reproducible, verifiable, and transparent in-depth echocardiographic investigation might ensure consistent hemodynamic plausibility of the quantitative results in patients with combined aortic and mitral regurgitation.

Intratumoral heterogeneity after targeted therapy in murine cancer models with differing degrees of malignancy

INTRODUCTION

Conventional morphologic and volumetric assessment of treatment response is not suitable for adequately assessing responses to targeted cancer therapy. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in tumor composition after targeted therapy in murine models of breast cancer with differing degrees of malignancy via non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice bearing highly malignant 4T1 tumors or low malignant 67NR tumors were treated with either a combination of two immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI, anti-PD1 and anti-CTLA-4) or the multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor sorafenib, following experiments with macrophage-depleting clodronate-loaded liposomes and vessel-stabilizing angiopoietin-1. Mice were imaged on a 9.4 T small animal MRI system with a multiparametric (mp) protocol, comprising T1 and T2 mapping and diffusion-weighted imaging. Tumors were analyzed ex vivo with histology.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

All treatments led to an increase in non-viable areas, but therapy-induced intratumoral changes differed between the two tumor models and the different targeted treatments. While ICI treatment led to intratumoral hemorrhage, sorafenib treatment mainly induced intratumoral necrosis. Treated 4T1 tumors showed increasing and extensive areas of necrosis, in comparison to 67NR tumors with only small, but also increasing, necrotic areas. After either of the applied treatments, intratumoral heterogeneity, was increased in both tumor models, and confirmed ex vivo by histology. Apparent diffusion coefficient with subsequent histogram analysis proved to be the most sensitive MRI sequence. In conclusion, mp MRI enables to assess dedicated therapy-related intratumoral changes and may serve as a biomarker for treatment response assessment.

[Echocardiography in cardiac arrhythmias]

Echocardiography plays a key role in planning and guidance of electrophysiological procedures. After exclusion of structural heart disease, echocardiography provides insight into the extent of left atrial remodeling by determining left atrial metrics. This "biomarker" is associated with the risk of new-onset atrial fibrillation and predictive of atrial fibrillation recurrence after ablation. Transesophageal echocardiography is necessary to exclude left atrial thrombi and is able to guide a transseptal puncture. In case of a rare but life-threatening cardiac tamponade, an echocardiographic-guided pericardiocentesis ensures quick and effective treatment. Left ventricular ejection fraction and deformation analysis determined by echocardiography are established methods for risk stratification in patients with systolic dysfunction and used to guide pharmacological and device therapy.

Expert proposal to characterize cardiac diseases with normal or preserved left ventricular ejection fraction and symptoms of heart failure by comprehensive echocardiography

Currently, the term "heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (HFpEF)" is based on echocardiographic parameters and clinical symptoms combined with elevated or normal levels of natriuretic peptides. Thus, "HFpEF" as a diagnosis subsumes multiple pathophysiological entities making a uniform management plan for "HFpEF" impossible. Therefore, a more specific characterization of the underlying cardiac pathologies in patients with preserved ejection fraction and symptoms of heart failure is mandatory. The present proposal seeks to offer practical support by a standardized echocardiographic workflow to characterize specific diagnostic entities associated with "HFpEF". It focuses on morphological and functional cardiac phenotypes characterized by echocardiography in patients with normal or preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). The proposal discusses methodological issues to clarify why and when echocardiography is helpful to improve the diagnosis. Thus, the proposal addresses a systematic echocardiographic approach using a feasible algorithm with weighting criteria for interpretation of echocardiographic parameters related to patients with preserved ejection fraction and symptoms of heart failure. The authors consciously do not use the diagnosis "HFpEF" to avoid misunderstandings. Central illustration: Scheme illustrating the characteristic echocardiographic phenotypes and their combinations in patients with "HFpEF" symptoms with respect to the respective cardiac pathology and pathophysiology as well as the underlying typical disease.

Stress With Bubbles: Echocardiographic Visualization of a Typical Pathway Between the Spine and the Heart

•

Right atrial bubbles were detected without active infusion during stress echocardiography.

•

Bubbles can be caused by the VP.

•

The VP occurs as a result of degeneration of intervertebral disks.

[Standardized contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in clinical acute and emergency medicine and critical care (CEUS Acute) : Consensus statement of DGIIN, DIVI, DGINA, DGAI, DGK, ÖGUM, SGUM and DEGUM]

The present document describes the possible applications of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in emergency examinations. Guidelines on contrast medium ultrasound in acute and emergency care and intensive care medicine have not yet been published. Evidence-based CEUS guidelines were first provided by the European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB) and the World Federation for Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (WFUMB). The presented recommendations describe the possible applications and protocols of CEUS in acute care.

Manual zur Indikation und Durchführung spezieller echokardiographischer Anwendungen

Das zweite Manual zur Indikation und Durchführung der Echokardiographie bezieht sich auf spezifische Anwendungen der Echokardiographie und besondere Fragestellungen bei speziellen Patientengruppen. Dabei stehen v. a. praktische Aspekte im Vordergrund. Methodisch etabliert sind die transösophageale Echokardiographie, die Stressechokardiographie und die Kontrastechokardiographie. Bei nahezu allen echokardiographischen Untersuchungen spielen aktuell 3‑D-Echokardiographie und Deformationsbildgebung eine Rolle. Das gesamte Spektrum der echokardiographischen Möglichkeiten wird derzeit in Notfall- und Intensivmedizin, bei der Überwachung und Führung von Katheterinterventionen, bei strukturellen Herzerkrankungen, bei herzchirurgischen Operationen, bei der Nachsorge von kardialen Unterstützungssystemen, bei kongenitalen Vitien im Erwachsenenalter und bei der Versorgung von hochinfektiösen Patienten in Pandemiezeiten angewandt. Die diagnostischen Fortschritte der konventionellen und modernen echokardiographischen Anwendungen stehen im Fokus dieses Manuals. Die 3‑D-Echokardiographie zur Charakterisierung der kardialen Morphologie und die Deformationsbildgebung zur Objektivierung der kardialen Funktion sind bei vielen Indikationen im klinischen Alltag etabliert. Die Stressechokardiographie zur Ischämie‑, Vitalitäts- und Vitiendiagnostik, die Bestimmung der koronaren Flussreserve und die Kontrastechokardiographie bei der linksventrikulären Wandbewegungsanalyse und kardialen Tumordetektion finden zunehmend klinische Anwendung. Wie für die konventionelle Echokardiographie im ersten Manual der Echokardiographie 2009 beschrieben, erfordert der Einsatz moderner echokardiographischer Verfahren die standardisierte Dokumentation und Akquisition bestimmter Bildsequenzen bei optimierter Geräteeinstellung, da korrekte und reproduzierbare Auswertungen nur bei guter Bildqualität möglich sind.

Vorhofflimmern und NOAK-Therapie: Benötigen wir eine transösophageale Echokardiografie vor Kardioversion?

Vorhofflimmern ist ein häufiger Grund für einen Schlaganfall. Insbesondere Patienten ohne adäquate Antikoagulation haben ein erhöhtes Risiko für thromboembolische Ereignisse (ca. 5–7%). Es liegt eine Assoziation zwischen Kardioversionen und embolischen Ereignissen vor. Durch eine orale Antikoagulation (OAK) mit Nicht-Vitamin-K-Antagonisten (NOAK) kann dieses Risiko auf unter 1% reduziert werden. Es gibt 2 unterschiedliche Kardioversionsstrategien. Zum einen kann eine Kardioversion nach 3-wöchiger effektiver Antikoagulation ohne weitere Bildgebung durchgeführt werden. Zum anderen kann nach Ausschluss einer intrakardialen Thrombenbildung durch eine TEE umgehend sicher kardiovertiert werden. Bei Vorhofflimmern sollte nach der Kardioversion eine effektive Antikoagulation für mindestens 4 Wochen erfolgen, unabhängig vom CHA2DS2-VASc-Score. Eine Bildgebung mittels TEE ist notwendig, wenn die Dauer einer effektiven Antikoagulation <3 Wochen ist, Unsicherheiten bezüglich der regelmäßigen und lückenlosen Medikamenteneinnahme bestehen oder ein hohes Risiko für linksatriale Thromben besteht.

Echocardiographic assessment of mitral regurgitation: discussion of practical and methodologic aspects of severity quantification to improve diagnostic conclusiveness

The echocardiographic assessment of mitral valve regurgitation (MR) by characterizing specific morphological features and grading its severity is still challenging. Analysis of MR etiology is necessary to clarify the underlying pathological mechanism of the valvular defect. Severity of mitral regurgitation is often quantified based on semi-quantitative parameters. However, incongruent findings and/or interpretations of regurgitation severity are frequently observed. This proposal seeks to offer practical support to overcome these obstacles by offering a standardized workflow, an easy means to identify non-severe mitral regurgitation, and by focusing on the quantitative approach with calculation of the individual regurgitant fraction. This work also indicates main methodological problems of semi-quantitative parameters when evaluating MR severity and offers appropriateness criteria for their use. It addresses the diagnostic importance of left-ventricular wall thickness, left-ventricular and left atrial volumes in relation to disease progression, and disease-related complaints to improve interpretation of echocardiographic findings. Finally, it highlights the conditions influencing the MR dynamics during echocardiographic examination. These considerations allow a reproducible, verifiable, and transparent in-depth echocardiographic evaluation of MR patients ensuring consistent haemodynamic plausibility of echocardiographic results.

Disproportionate mitral regurgitation: another myth? A critical appraisal of echocardiographic assessment of functional mitral regurgitation

The contradictory findings of recent prospective randomized controlled trials assessing the impact of percutaneous edge-to-edge repair in patients with functional or secondary mitral regurgitation have triggered a lively discussion about an “integrated” echocardiographic approach for grading severity of mitral regurgitation. In the MITRA-FR trial, the COAPT trial and the REDUCE-FMR trial echocardiographic assessment of the severity of mitral regurgitation was consistent with principles set forth by the current echocardiographic guidelines and analysed in its best settings by expert international leaders in the field of echocardiography. However, serious inconsistencies appeared in the presented echocardiographic assessments regarding cardiac output and regurgitant fraction. A new term “disproportionate functional mitral regurgitation” was introduced describing a situation where the increase of effective regurgitant orifice area exceeds the enlargement of the left ventricular end-diastolic volumes. Further discussion resulted in the idea of a “new conceptional framework” for distinguishing “proportionate” and “disproportionate” functional mitral regurgitation. The aim of this viewpoint is to dispute conclusions based on the term “disproportionate” mitral regurgitation. A “disproportionate” FMR is highly questionable because disproportionateness of flow in communication vessels cannot exist. In addition, a proposal of echocardiographic assessment based on a conventional comprehensive transthoracic echocardiography is given to avoid obvious hemodynamic contradictions.

Aktueller Stellenwert der kontrastverstärkten Echokardiografie

Die Echokardiografie mit lungengängigen Ultraschallkontrastmitteln stellt eine gut etablierte Methode dar, um die Limitationen der nicht kontrastverstärkten Echokardiografie infolge von Artefakten oder eines eingeschränkten Schallfensters zu minimieren. Es werden die aktuellen Empfehlungen zum Einsatz von lungengängigen Kontrastmitteln bei der regionalen Wandbewegungsanalyse, der Messung der Ejektionsfraktion, bei Thromben und Tumoren sowie bei der Perfusionsechokardiografie dargestellt.

Expert consensus document on the assessment of the severity of aortic valve stenosis by echocardiography to provide diagnostic conclusiveness by standardized verifiable documentation

According to recent recommendations on echocardiographic assessment of aortic valve stenosis direct measurement of transvalvular peak jet velocity, calculation of transvalvular mean gradient from the velocities using the Bernoulli equation and calculation of the effective aortic valve area by continuity equation are the appropriate primary key instruments for grading severity of aortic valve stenosis. It is obvious that no gold standard can be declared for grading the severity of aortic stenosis. Thus, conclusions of the exclusive evaluation of aortic stenosis by Doppler echocardiography seem to be questionable due to the susceptibility to errors caused by methodological limitations, mathematical simplifications and inappropriate documentation. The present paper will address practical issues of echocardiographic documentation to satisfy the needs to analyze different scenarios of aortic stenosis due to various flow conditions and pressure gradients. Transesophageal and multidimensional echocardiography should be implemented for reliable measurement of geometric aortic valve area and of cardiac dimensions at an early stage of the diagnostic procedure to avoid misinterpretation due to inconsistent results.

[Diagnostic value of right thoracic ECG recording in detection of pulmonary hypertension in chronic obstructive respiratory disease]

There are many electrocardiographic criteria of pulmonary hypertension and cor pulmonale. These criteria are generally highly specific but not sensitive. Therefore many patients with pulmonary hypertension remain undetected. The aim of this study was to delineate a sensitive as well as a specific ECG parameter for noninvasive prediction of pulmonary hypertension under special consideration of the right thoracic leads. 75 patients were included in this study, 62 male and 13 female, mean age 62.7 +/- 9.5 years. All presented with chronic obstructive lung disease known since 12.1 +/- 9.7 years. The underlying disease had been confirmed clinically and by body plethysmography. Laboratory and lung function data showed a high air way resistance with a mean value of 6.8 +/- 3.3 cm H2O/l/s and a high intrathoracic gas volume of 149.1% of the expected value. The severity of hypoxemia was variable but generally moderate with a PaO2 of 65.3 +/- 11.6 mm Hg on average. All patients applied aerosols with ipratropiumbromid, fenoterol and glucocorticoids. 92% additionally received aminophylline and 87.0% oral glucocorticoids. Diuretics and glycosides were prescribed in 50.0% and 34.8% respectively. The four right thoracic ECG leads Vr3 to Vr6 were recorded in addition to the common twelve leads I to III, a VR, aVL, aVF and V1 to V6. A modified Sokolow-Lyon-Index (SIm) as a sum of amplitudes of R in lead Vr3 and S in lead V6 and the combination of SIm with PaO2 (SIm-PaO2, n = 44) according to the formula SIm + 0.02 (100--PaO2%) were established. Additionally a right heart catherization by Swan-Ganz technique was performed. The mean values of hemodynamic data demonstrated a constellation of precapillary pulmonary hypertension with high PAPm and pulmonary resistance and low pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (26.4 +/- 12.9 mm Hg, 396.0 +/- 294.0 dyn.s./cm5 and 8.7 +/- 4.2 mm Hg, respectively).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)