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Grasso M, Fidilio A, L’Episcopo F, Recupero M, Barone C, Bacalini MG, Benatti C, Giambirtone MC, Caruso G, Greco D, Di Nuovo S, Romano C, Ferri R, Buono S, Cuello AC, Blom JMC, Tascedda F, Piazza PV, De La Torre R, Caraci F. Low TGF-β1 plasma levels are associated with cognitive decline in Down syndrome. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1379965. [PMID: 38576478 PMCID: PMC10991739 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1379965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Almost all individuals with Down's syndrome (DS) show the characteristic neuropathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by the age of 40, yet not every individual with DS experiences symptoms of AD later in life. Similar to neurotypical developing subjects, AD in people with DS lasts for a long preclinical phase in which biomarkers follow a predictable order of changes. Hence, a prolonged asymptomatic period precedes the onset of dementia, underscoring the importance of identifying new biomarkers for the early detection and monitoring of cognitive decline in individuals with DS. Blood-based biomarkers may offer an alternative non-invasive strategy for the detection of peripheral biological alterations paralleling nervous system pathology in an early phase of the AD continuum. In the last few years, a strong neurobiological link has been demonstrated between the deficit of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) levels, an anti-inflammatory cytokine endowed with neuroprotective activity, and early pro-inflammatory processes in the AD brain. In this clinical prospective observational study, we found significant lower plasma TGF-β1 concentrations at the first neuropsychological evaluation (baseline = T0) both in young adult DS individuals (19-35 years) and older DS subjects without AD (35-60 years) compared to age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Interestingly, we found that the lower TGF-β1 plasma concentrations at T0 were strongly correlated with the following cognitive decline at 12 months. In addition, in young individuals with DS, we found, for the first time, a negative correlation between low TGF-β1 concentrations and high TNF-α plasma concentrations, a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is known to be associated with cognitive impairment in DS individuals with AD. Finally, adopting an ex vivo approach, we found that TGF-β1 concentrations were reduced in parallel both in the plasma and in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of DS subjects, and interestingly, therapeutic concentrations of fluoxetine (FLX) applied to cultured PBMCs (1 µM for 24 h) were able to rescue TGF-β1 concentrations in the culture media from DS PBMCs, suggesting that FLX, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) endowed with neuroprotective activity, might rescue TGF-β1 concentrations in DS subjects at higher risk to develop cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Cristina Benatti
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Santo Di Nuovo
- Department of Educational Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Corrado Romano
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Johanna M. C. Blom
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | - Rafael De La Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neurosciences Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Research Institute /HMRI, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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Caruso G, Fresta CG, Fidilio A, Lazzara F, Musso N, Cardaci V, Drago F, Caraci F, Bucolo C. Carnosine Counteracts the Molecular Alterations Aβ Oligomers-Induced in Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28083324. [PMID: 37110558 PMCID: PMC10146178 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28083324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) has been described as a progressive eye disease characterized by irreversible impairment of central vision, and unfortunately, an effective treatment is still not available. It is well-known that amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide is one of the major culprits in causing neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The extracellular accumulation of this peptide has also been found in drusen which lies under the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and represents one of the early signs of AMD pathology. Aβ aggregates, especially in the form of oligomers, are able to induce pro-oxidant (oxidative stress) and pro-inflammatory phenomena in RPE cells. ARPE-19 is a spontaneously arising human RPE cell line validated for drug discovery processes in AMD. In the present study, we employed ARPE-19 treated with Aβ oligomers, representing an in vitro model of AMD. We used a combination of methods, including ATPlite, quantitative real-time PCR, immunocytochemistry, as well as a fluorescent probe for reactive oxygen species to investigate the molecular alterations induced by Aβ oligomers. In particular, we found that Aβ exposure decreased the cell viability of ARPE-19 cells which was paralleled by increased inflammation (increased expression of pro-inflammatory mediators) and oxidative stress (increased expression of NADPH oxidase and ROS production) along with the destruction of ZO-1 tight junction protein. Once the damage was clarified, we investigated the therapeutic potential of carnosine, an endogenous dipeptide that is known to be reduced in AMD patients. Our findings demonstrate that carnosine was able to counteract most of the molecular alterations induced by the challenge of ARPE-19 with Aβ oligomers. These new findings obtained with ARPE-19 cells challenged with Aβ1-42 oligomers, along with the well-demonstrated multimodal mechanism of action of carnosine both in vitro and in vivo, able to prevent and/or counteract the dysfunctions elicited by Aβ oligomers, substantiate the neuroprotective potential of this dipeptide in the context of AMD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Claudia G Fresta
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
- Bio-Nanotech Research and Innovation Tower (BRIT), University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Cardaci
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milano, Italy
- Scuola Superiore di Catania, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
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Privitera A, Cardaci V, Weerasekara D, Saab MW, Diolosà L, Fidilio A, Jolivet RB, Lazzarino G, Amorini AM, Camarda M, Lunte SM, Caraci F, Caruso G. Microfluidic/HPLC combination to study carnosine protective activity on challenged human microglia: Focus on oxidative stress and energy metabolism. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1161794. [PMID: 37063279 PMCID: PMC10095171 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1161794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) is a naturally occurring endogenous peptide widely distributed in excitable tissues such as the brain. This dipeptide possesses well-demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aggregation properties, and it may be useful for treatment of pathologies characterized by oxidative stress and energy unbalance such as depression and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Microglia, the brain-resident macrophages, are involved in different physiological brain activities such synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis, but their dysregulation has been linked to the pathogenesis of numerous diseases. In AD brain, the activation of microglia towards a pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory phenotype has found in an early phase of cognitive decline, reason why new pharmacological targets related to microglia activation are of great importance to develop innovative therapeutic strategies. In particular, microglia represent a common model of lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced activation to identify novel pharmacological targets for depression and AD and numerous studies have linked the impairment of energy metabolism, including ATP dyshomeostasis, to the onset of depressive episodes. In the present study, we first investigated the toxic potential of LPS + ATP in the absence or presence of carnosine. Our studies were carried out on human microglia (HMC3 cell line) in which LPS + ATP combination has shown the ability to promote cell death, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Additionally, to shed more light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effect of carnosine, its ability to modulate reactive oxygen species production and the variation of parameters representative of cellular energy metabolism was evaluated by microchip electrophoresis coupled to laser-induced fluorescence and high performance liquid chromatography, respectively. In our experimental conditions, carnosine prevented LPS + ATP-induced cell death and oxidative stress, also completely restoring basal energy metabolism in human HMC3 microglia. Our results suggest a therapeutic potential of carnosine as a new pharmacological tool in the context of multifactorial disorders characterize by neuroinflammatory phenomena including depression and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Privitera
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Cardaci
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milano, Italy
- Scuola Superiore di Catania, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Dhanushka Weerasekara
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Miriam Wissam Saab
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Lidia Diolosà
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Renaud Blaise Jolivet
- Maastricht Centre for Systems Biology (MaCSBio), Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Giuseppe Lazzarino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Angela Maria Amorini
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Susan Marie Lunte
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
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Caruso G, Privitera A, Saab MW, Musso N, Maugeri S, Fidilio A, Privitera AP, Pittalà A, Jolivet RB, Lanzanò L, Lazzarino G, Caraci F, Amorini AM. Characterization of Carnosine Effect on Human Microglial Cells under Basal Conditions. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020474. [PMID: 36831010 PMCID: PMC9953171 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The activity of microglia is fundamental for the regulation of numerous physiological processes including brain development, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis, and its deviation from homeostasis can lead to pathological conditions, including numerous neurodegenerative disorders. Carnosine is a naturally occurring molecule with well-characterized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, able to modulate the response and polarization of immune cells and ameliorate their cellular energy metabolism. The better understanding of microglia characteristics under basal physiological conditions, as well as the possible modulation of the mechanisms related to its response to environmental challenges and/or pro-inflammatory/pro-oxidant stimuli, are of utmost importance for the development of therapeutic strategies. In the present study, we assessed the activity of carnosine on human HMC3 microglial cells, first investigating the effects of increasing concentrations of carnosine on cell viability. When used at a concentration of 20 mM, carnosine led to a decrease of cell viability, paralleled by gene expression increase and decrease, respectively, of interleukin 6 and heme oxygenase 1. When using the maximal non-toxic concentration (10 mM), carnosine decreased nitric oxide bioavailability, with no changes in the intracellular levels of superoxide ion. The characterization of energy metabolism of HMC3 microglial cells under basal conditions, never reported before, demonstrated that it is mainly based on mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, paralleled by a high rate of biosynthetic reactions. The exposure of HMC3 cells to carnosine seems to ameliorate microglia energy state, as indicated by the increase in the adenosine triphosphate/adenosine diphosphate (ATP/ADP) ratio and energy charge potential. The improvement of cell energy metabolism mediated by 10 mM carnosine could represent a useful protective weapon in the case of human microglia undergoing stressing conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0957385036
| | - Anna Privitera
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Miriam Wissam Saab
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Maugeri
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | | | - Alessandra Pittalà
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Renaud Blaise Jolivet
- Maastricht Centre for Systems Biology (MaCSBio), Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Luca Lanzanò
- Department of Physics and Astronomy “Ettore Majorana”, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lazzarino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
- Unit of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Angela Maria Amorini
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
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Caraci F, Fidilio A, Santangelo R, Caruso G, Giuffrida ML, Tomasello MF, Nicoletti F, Copani A. Molecular Connections between DNA Replication and Cell Death in β-Amyloid-Treated Neurons. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:2006-2018. [PMID: 37021419 PMCID: PMC10514525 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666230404121903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ectopic cell cycle reactivation in neurons is associated with neuronal death in Alzheimer's disease. In cultured rodent neurons, synthetic β-amyloid (Aβ) reproduces the neuronal cell cycle re-entry observed in the Alzheimer's brain, and blockade of the cycle prevents Aβ-induced neurodegeneration. DNA polymerase-β, whose expression is induced by Aβ, is responsible for the DNA replication process that ultimately leads to neuronal death, but the molecular mechanism(s) linking DNA replication to neuronal apoptosis are presently unknown. AIM To explore the role of a conserved checkpoint pathway started by DNA replication stress, namely the ATM-ATR/Claspin/Chk-1 pathway, in switching the neuronal response from DNA replication to apoptosis. METHODS Experiments were carried out in cultured rat cortical neurons challenged with toxic oligomers of Aβ protein. RESULTS Small inhibitory molecules of ATM/ATR kinase or Chk-1 amplified Aβ-induced neuronal DNA replication and apoptosis, as they were permissive to the DNA polymerase-β activity triggered by Aβ oligomers. Claspin, i.e., the adaptor protein between ATM/ATR kinase and the downstream Chk-1, was present on DNA replication forks of neurons early after Aβ challenge, and decreased at times coinciding with neuronal apoptosis. The caspase-3/7 inhibitor I maintained overtime the amount of Claspin loaded on DNA replication forks and, concomitantly, reduced neuronal apoptosis by holding neurons in the S phase. Moreover, a short phosphopeptide mimicking the Chk-1-binding motif of Claspin was able to prevent Aβ-challenged neurons from entering apoptosis. CONCLUSION We speculate that, in the Alzheimer's brain, Claspin degradation by intervening factors may precipitate the death of neurons engaged into DNA replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- UOR of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute - IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- UOR of Neuropharmacology and Translational Neurosciences, Oasi Research Institute - IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Rosa Santangelo
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Laura Giuffrida
- Institute of Crystallography, National Council of Research, Catania Unit, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Ferdinando Nicoletti
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University Sapienza of Rome, Rome, Italy
- IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Agata Copani
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Institute of Crystallography, National Council of Research, Catania Unit, Catania, Italy
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Fidilio A, Grasso M, Caruso G, Musso N, Begni V, Privitera A, Torrisi SA, Campolongo P, Schiavone S, Tascedda F, Leggio GM, Drago F, Riva MA, Caraci F. Prenatal stress induces a depressive-like phenotype in adolescent rats: The key role of TGF-β1 pathway. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1075746. [DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1075746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Stressful experiences early in life, especially in the prenatal period, can increase the risk to develop depression during adolescence. However, there may be important qualitative and quantitative differences in outcome of prenatal stress (PNS), where some individuals exposed to PNS are vulnerable and develop a depressive-like phenotype, while others appear to be resilient. PNS exposure, a well-established rat model of early life stress, is known to increase vulnerability to depression and a recent study demonstrated a strong interaction between transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) gene and PNS in the pathogenesis of depression. Moreover, it is well-known that the exposure to early life stress experiences induces brain oxidative damage by increasing nitric oxide levels and decreasing antioxidant factors. In the present work, we examined the role of TGF-β1 pathway in an animal model of adolescent depression induced by PNS obtained by exposing pregnant females to a stressful condition during the last week of gestation. We performed behavioral tests to identify vulnerable or resilient subjects in the obtained litters (postnatal day, PND > 35) and we carried out molecular analyses on hippocampus, a brain area with a key role in the pathogenesis of depression. We found that female, but not male, PNS adolescent rats exhibited a depressive-like behavior in forced swim test (FST), whereas both male and female PNS rats showed a deficit of recognition memory as assessed by novel object recognition test (NOR). Interestingly, we found an increased expression of type 2 TGF-β1 receptor (TGFβ-R2) in the hippocampus of both male and female resilient PNS rats, with higher plasma TGF-β1 levels in male, but not in female, PNS rats. Furthermore, PNS induced the activation of oxidative stress pathways by increasing inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1) and NOX2 levels in the hippocampus of both male and female PNS adolescent rats. Our data suggest that high levels of TGF-β1 and its receptor TGFβ-R2 can significantly increase the resiliency of adolescent rats to PNS, suggesting that TGF-β1 pathway might represent a novel pharmacological target to prevent adolescent depression in rats.
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Caruso G, Grasso M, Fidilio A, Torrisi SA, Musso N, Geraci F, Tropea MR, Privitera A, Tascedda F, Puzzo D, Salomone S, Drago F, Leggio GM, Caraci F. Antioxidant Activity of Fluoxetine and Vortioxetine in a Non-Transgenic Animal Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:809541. [PMID: 35002742 PMCID: PMC8740153 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.809541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A neurobiological and clinical continuum exists between AD and depression, with neuroinflammation and oxidative stress being involved in both diseases. Second-generation antidepressants, in particular selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are currently investigated as neuroprotective drugs in AD. By employing a non-transgenic AD model, obtained by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers in 2-month-old C57BL/6 mice, we recently demonstrated that the SSRI fluoxetine (FLX) and the multimodal antidepressant vortioxetine (VTX) reversed the depressive-like phenotype and memory deficits induced by Aβ oligomers rescuing the levels of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1). Aim of our study was to test FLX and VTX for their ability to prevent oxidative stress in the hippocampus of Aβ-injected mice, a brain area strongly affected in both depression and AD. The long-term intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of FLX (10 mg/kg) or VTX (5 and 10 mg/kg) for 24 days, starting 7 days before Aβ injection, was able to prevent the over-expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2) induced by Aβ oligomers. Antidepressant pre-treatment was also able to rescue the mRNA expression of glutathione peroxidase 1 (Gpx1) antioxidant enzyme. FLX and VTX also prevented Aβ-induced neurodegeneration in mixed neuronal cultures treated with Aβ oligomers. Our data represent the first evidence that the long-term treatment with the antidepressants FLX or VTX can prevent the oxidative stress phenomena related to the cognitive deficits and depressive-like phenotype observed in a non-transgenic animal model of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Federica Geraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Tropea
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Anna Privitera
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Daniela Puzzo
- Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy.,Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
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Fidilio A, Grasso M, Turnaturi R, Caruso G, Spitale FM, Vicario N, Parenti R, Spoto S, Musso N, Marrazzo A, Chiechio S, Caraci F, Pasquinucci L, Parenti C. The Multimodal MOPr/DOPr Agonist LP2 Reduces Allodynia in Chronic Constriction Injured Rats by Rescue of TGF-β1 Signalling. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:749365. [PMID: 34690781 PMCID: PMC8526862 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.749365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is one of the most disabling forms of chronic pain and it is characterized by hyperalgesia and allodynia linked to an aberrant processing of pain transmission and to neuroinflammation. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) is an anti-inflammatory cytokine, which protects against neuroinflammation. It has been demonstrated that TGF-β1 and opioid receptors signalling crosstalk results in an improvement of endogenous opioid analgesia, but it is not known whether mu opioid peptide receptor (MOPr) or delta opioid peptide receptor (DOPr) agonists can positively modulate TGF-β1 pathway. In the present study, we examined the correlation between anti-allodynic effect of LP2, a dual-target MOPr/DOPr agonist, and TGF-β1 signalling in the chronic constriction injury (CCI) model. We detected a significant decrease of active TGF-β1 and of its type II receptor TGFβ-R2 levels in the spinal cord from CCI rats and a selective deficit of TGF-β1 in microglia cells both at days 11 and 21 post-ligature, as assessed by immunofluorescence analysis. LP2, when administered from the 11 days post-ligature to 21 days, was able to reduce CCI-induced mechanical allodynia by rescue of TGF-β1 and TGFβ-R2 levels. Our data suggest that the rescue of TGF-β1 signalling by dual-target MOPr/DOPr agonist LP2 could be mediated by DOPr activation in spinal microglia, thus the dual-target approach could represent a novel pharmacological approach to increase the analgesic efficacy of MOPr agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute - IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Rita Turnaturi
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Federica Maria Spitale
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Physiology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Nunzio Vicario
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Physiology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Rosalba Parenti
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Physiology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Spoto
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Biochemistry, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Agostino Marrazzo
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Santina Chiechio
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute - IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute - IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Lorella Pasquinucci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Carmela Parenti
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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9
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Caruso G, Benatti C, Musso N, Fresta CG, Fidilio A, Spampinato G, Brunello N, Bucolo C, Drago F, Lunte SM, Peterson BR, Tascedda F, Caraci F. Carnosine Protects Macrophages against the Toxicity of Aβ1-42 Oligomers by Decreasing Oxidative Stress. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9050477. [PMID: 33926064 PMCID: PMC8146816 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) is a naturally occurring endogenous peptide widely distributed in excitable tissues such as the brain. This dipeptide has well-known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aggregation activities, and it may be useful for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In this disease, peripheral infiltrating macrophages play a substantial role in the clearance of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides from the brain. Correspondingly, in patients suffering from AD, defects in the capacity of peripheral macrophages to engulf Aβ have been reported. The effects of carnosine on macrophages and oxidative stress associated with AD are consequently of substantial interest for drug discovery in this field. In the present work, a model of stress induced by Aβ1-42 oligomers was investigated using a combination of methods including trypan blue exclusion, microchip electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence, flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, and high-throughput quantitative real-time PCR. These assays were used to assess the ability of carnosine to protect macrophage cells, modulate oxidative stress, and profile the expression of genes related to inflammation and pro- and antioxidant systems. We found that pre-treatment of RAW 264.7 macrophages with carnosine counteracted cell death and apoptosis induced by Aβ1-42 oligomers by decreasing oxidative stress as measured by levels of intracellular nitric oxide (NO)/reactive oxygen species (ROS) and production of peroxynitrite. This protective activity of carnosine was not mediated by modulation of the canonical inflammatory pathway but instead can be explained by the well-known antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities of carnosine, enhanced macrophage phagocytic activity, and the rescue of fractalkine receptor CX3CR1. These new findings obtained with macrophages challenged with Aβ1-42 oligomers, along with the well-known multimodal mechanism of action of carnosine in vitro and in vivo, substantiate the therapeutic potential of this dipeptide in the context of AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-095-7384265
| | - Cristina Benatti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (C.B.); (N.B.); (F.T.)
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Claudia G. Fresta
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
| | - Giorgia Spampinato
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Nicoletta Brunello
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (C.B.); (N.B.); (F.T.)
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (N.M.); (C.G.F.); (G.S.); (C.B.); (F.D.)
| | - Susan M. Lunte
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
| | - Blake R. Peterson
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (C.B.); (N.B.); (F.T.)
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
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10
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Caruso G, Grasso M, Fidilio A, Tascedda F, Drago F, Caraci F. Antioxidant Properties of Second-Generation Antipsychotics: Focus on Microglia. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13120457. [PMID: 33322693 PMCID: PMC7764768 DOI: 10.3390/ph13120457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies suggest a primary role of oxidative stress in an early phase of the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and a strong neurobiological link has been found between dopaminergic system dysfunction, microglia overactivation, and oxidative stress. Different risk factors for schizophrenia increase oxidative stress phenomena raising the risk of developing psychosis. Oxidative stress induced by first-generation antipsychotics such as haloperidol significantly contributes to the development of extrapyramidal side effects. Haloperidol also exerts neurotoxic effects by decreasing antioxidant enzyme levels then worsening pro-oxidant events. Opposite to haloperidol, second-generation antipsychotics (or atypical antipsychotics) such as risperidone, clozapine, and olanzapine exert a strong antioxidant activity in experimental models of schizophrenia by rescuing the antioxidant system, with an increase in superoxide dismutase and glutathione (GSH) serum levels. Second-generation antipsychotics also improve the antioxidant status and reduce lipid peroxidation in schizophrenic patients. Interestingly, second-generation antipsychotics, such as risperidone, paliperidone, and in particular clozapine, reduce oxidative stress induced by microglia overactivation, decreasing the production of microglia-derived free radicals, finally protecting neurons against microglia-induced oxidative stress. Further, long-term clinical studies are needed to better understand the link between oxidative stress and the clinical response to antipsychotic drugs and the therapeutic potential of antioxidants to increase the response to antipsychotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (F.C.)
- Correspondence: or
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (F.C.)
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.D.)
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy;
- Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.D.)
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (M.G.); (F.C.)
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
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11
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Fresta CG, Fidilio A, Caruso G, Caraci F, Giblin FJ, Marco Leggio G, Salomone S, Drago F, Bucolo C. A New Human Blood-Retinal Barrier Model Based on Endothelial Cells, Pericytes, and Astrocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E1636. [PMID: 32121029 PMCID: PMC7084779 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood-retinal barrier (BRB) dysfunction represents one of the most significant changes occurring during diabetic retinopathy. We set up a high-reproducible human-based in vitro BRB model using retinal pericytes, retinal astrocytes, and retinal endothelial cells in order to replicate the human in vivo environment with the same numerical ratio and layer order. Our findings showed that high glucose exposure elicited BRB breakdown, enhanced permeability, and reduced the levels of junction proteins such as ZO-1 and VE-cadherin. Furthermore, an increased expression of pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-6) and oxidative stress-related enzymes (iNOS, Nox2) along with an increased production of reactive oxygen species were observed in our triple co-culture paradigm. Finally, we found an activation of immune response-regulating signaling pathways (Nrf2 and HO-1). In conclusion, the present model mimics the closest human in vivo milieu, providing a valuable tool to study the impact of high glucose in the retina and to develop novel molecules with potential effect on diabetic retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia G. Fresta
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (C.G.F.); (G.M.L.); (S.S.)
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
| | | | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (F.C.)
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy;
| | - Frank J. Giblin
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA;
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (C.G.F.); (G.M.L.); (S.S.)
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (C.G.F.); (G.M.L.); (S.S.)
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (C.G.F.); (G.M.L.); (S.S.)
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (C.G.F.); (G.M.L.); (S.S.)
- Eye Research Institute, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA;
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
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12
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Fresta CG, Fidilio A, Lazzarino G, Musso N, Grasso M, Merlo S, Amorini AM, Bucolo C, Tavazzi B, Lazzarino G, Lunte SM, Caraci F, Caruso G. Modulation of Pro-Oxidant and Pro-Inflammatory Activities of M1 Macrophages by the Natural Dipeptide Carnosine. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030776. [PMID: 31991717 PMCID: PMC7038063 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnosine is a natural endogenous dipeptide widely distributed in mammalian tissues, existing at particularly high concentrations in the muscles and brain and possesses well-characterized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. In an in vitro model of macrophage activation, induced by lipopolysaccharide + interferon-gamma (LPS + IFN-γ), we here report the ability of carnosine to modulate pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory activities of macrophages, representing the primary cell type that is activated as a part of the immune response. An ample set of parameters aimed to evaluate cytotoxicity (MTT assay), energy metabolism (HPLC), gene expressions (high-throughput real-time PCR (qRT-PCR)), protein expressions (western blot) and nitric oxide production (qRT-PCR and HPLC), was used to assess the effects of carnosine on activated macrophages challenged with a non cytotoxic LPS (100 ng/mL) + IFN-γ (600 U/mL) concentration. In our experimental model, main carnosine beneficial effects were: (1) the modulation of nitric oxide production and metabolism; (2) the amelioration of the macrophage energy state; (3) the decrease of the expressions of pro-oxidant enzymes (Nox-2, Cox-2) and of the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde; (4) the restoration and/or increase of the expressions of antioxidant enzymes (Gpx1, SOD-2 and Cat); (5) the increase of the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and the down-regulation of the expressions of interleukins 1β and 6 (IL-1β and IL-6) and 6) the increase of the expressions of Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). According to these results carnosine is worth being tested in the treatment of diseases characterized by elevated levels of oxidative stress and inflammation (atherosclerosis, cancer, depression, metabolic syndrome, and neurodegenerative diseases).
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia G. Fresta
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA; (C.G.F.); (S.M.L.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (M.G.); (F.C.)
| | - Giacomo Lazzarino
- UniCamillus—Saint Camillus International University of Health Sciences, 00131 Rome, Italy;
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Bio-nanotech Research and Innovation Tower (BRIT), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy;
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (M.G.); (F.C.)
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Sara Merlo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (S.M.); (A.M.A.); (C.B.)
| | - Angela M. Amorini
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (S.M.); (A.M.A.); (C.B.)
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (S.M.); (A.M.A.); (C.B.)
| | - Barbara Tavazzi
- Institute of Biochemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Catholic University of Rome, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lazzarino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (S.M.); (A.M.A.); (C.B.)
- Correspondence: (G.L.); (G.C.)
| | - Susan M. Lunte
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA; (C.G.F.); (S.M.L.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (A.F.); (M.G.); (F.C.)
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Giuseppe Caruso
- Oasi Research Institute—IRCCS, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
- Correspondence: (G.L.); (G.C.)
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13
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Bucolo C, Fidilio A, Fresta CG, Lazzara F, Platania CBM, Cantarella G, Di Benedetto G, Burgaletto C, Bernardini R, Piazza C, Barabino S, Drago F. Ocular Pharmacological Profile of Hydrocortisone in Dry Eye Disease. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1240. [PMID: 31680988 PMCID: PMC6813655 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate the ocular pharmacological profile of hydrocortisone (HC) using in vitro and in vivo models of dry eye disease. Rabbit corneal epithelial cells (SIRCs) were used to assess the effect of HC in two paradigms of corneal damage: hyperosmotic stress and scratch-wound assay. Dry eye was induced in albino rabbits by topical administration of atropine sulfate or by injection of concanavalin A (ConA) into the lacrimal gland. TNFα, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), IL-1β, and IL-8 were determined by ELISA or western blot in a corneal damage hyperosmotic in vitro model, with or without HC treatment. Inflammatory biomarkers, such as TNFα, IL-8, and MMP-9, were evaluated in tears of rabbit eye injected with ConA and treated with HC. Tear volume and tear film integrity, in both in vivo models, were evaluated by the Schirmer test and tear break-up time (TBUT). Ocular distribution of four formulations containing HC (0.001%, 0.003%, 0.005%, and 0.33%) was performed in the rabbit eye. Aqueous humor samples were collected after 15, 30, 60, and 90 min from instillation and then detected by LC-MS/MS. Hyperosmotic insult significantly activated protein expression of inflammatory biomarkers, which were significantly modulated by HC treatment. HC significantly enhanced the re-epithelialization of scratched SIRCs. Treatment with HC eye drops significantly reduced the tear concentrations of TNF-α, IL-8, and MMP-9 vs. vehicle in the ConA dry eye model. Moreover, HC significantly restored the tear volume and tear film integrity to levels of the control eyes, both in ConA- and atropine-induced dry eye paradigms. Finally, we demonstrated that HC crossed, in a dose-dependent manner, the corneal barrier when the eyes were topically treated with HC formulations (dose range 0.003-0.33%). No trace of HC was detected in the aqueous humor after ocular administration of eye drops containing the lowest dose of the drug (0.001%), indicating that, at this very low concentration, the drug did not pass the corneal barrier avoiding potential side effects such as intraocular pressure rise. Altogether, these data suggest that HC, at very low concentrations, has an important anti-inflammatory effect both in vitro and in vivo dry eye paradigms and a good safety profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Claudia Giuseppina Fresta
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Bianca Maria Platania
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Cantarella
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giulia Di Benedetto
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Burgaletto
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Renato Bernardini
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Cateno Piazza
- Analytical Department, University of Catania Consortium Unifarm, Catania, Italy
| | - Stefano Barabino
- Ocular Surface and Dry Eye Center, Ospedale L. Sacco, University of Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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14
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Caruso G, Fresta CG, Fidilio A, O'Donnell F, Musso N, Lazzarino G, Grasso M, Amorini AM, Tascedda F, Bucolo C, Drago F, Tavazzi B, Lazzarino G, Lunte SM, Caraci F. Carnosine Decreases PMA-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Murine Macrophages. Antioxidants (Basel) 2019; 8:E281. [PMID: 31390749 PMCID: PMC6720685 DOI: 10.3390/antiox8080281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Carnosine is an endogenous dipeptide composed of β-alanine and L-histidine. This naturally occurring molecule is present at high concentrations in several mammalian excitable tissues such as muscles and brain, while it can be found at low concentrations in a few invertebrates. Carnosine has been shown to be involved in different cellular defense mechanisms including the inhibition of protein cross-linking, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species detoxification as well as the counteraction of inflammation. As a part of the immune response, macrophages are the primary cell type that is activated. These cells play a crucial role in many diseases associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, carnosine was first tested for its ability to counteract oxidative stress. In our experimental model, represented by RAW 264.7 macrophages challenged with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) inhibitors, carnosine was able to decrease the intracellular concentration of superoxide anions (O2-•) as well as the expression of Nox1 and Nox2 enzyme genes. This carnosine antioxidant activity was accompanied by the attenuation of the PMA-induced Akt phosphorylation, the down-regulation of TNF-α and IL-6 mRNAs, and the up-regulation of the expression of the anti-inflammatory mediators IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β1. Additionally, when carnosine was used at the highest dose (20 mM), there was a generalized amelioration of the macrophage energy state, evaluated through the increase both in the total nucleoside triphosphate concentrations and the sum of the pool of intracellular nicotinic coenzymes. Finally, carnosine was able to decrease the oxidized (NADP+)/reduced (NADPH) ratio of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate in a concentration dependent manner, indicating a strong inhibitory effect of this molecule towards the main source of reactive oxygen species in macrophages. Our data suggest a multimodal mechanism of action of carnosine underlying its beneficial effects on macrophage cells under oxidative stress and inflammation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Caruso
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy.
| | - Claudia G Fresta
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Fergal O'Donnell
- School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, D09W6Y4 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Nicolò Musso
- Bio-Nanotech Research and Innovation Tower (BRIT), University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Giacomo Lazzarino
- Institute of Biochemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Catholic University of Rome, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Angela M Amorini
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Barbara Tavazzi
- Institute of Biochemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, Catholic University of Rome, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lazzarino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Susan M Lunte
- Ralph N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047-1620, USA
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Laboratories, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, 94018 Troina, Italy
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
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15
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Lazzara F, Fidilio A, Platania CBM, Giurdanella G, Salomone S, Leggio GM, Tarallo V, Cicatiello V, De Falco S, Eandi CM, Drago F, Bucolo C. Aflibercept regulates retinal inflammation elicited by high glucose via the PlGF/ERK pathway. Biochem Pharmacol 2019; 168:341-351. [PMID: 31351870 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a secondary complication of diabetes. DR can cause irreversible blindness, and its pathogenesis is considered multifactorial. DR can progress from non-proliferative DR to proliferative DR, characterized by retinal neovascularization. The main cause of vision loss in diabetic patients is diabetic macular edema, caused by vessel leakage and blood retinal barrier breakdown. Currently, aflibercept is an anti-VEGF approved for diabetic macular edema. Aflibercept can bind several members of vascular permeability factors, namely VEGF-A, B, and PlGF. We analyzed the aflibercept-PlGF complex at molecular level, through an in silico approach. In order to explore the role of PlGF in DR, we treated primary human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) and mouse retinal epithelial cells (RPEs) with aflibercept and an anti-PlGF antibody. We explored the hypothesis that aflibercept has anti-inflammatory action through blocking of PlGF signaling and the ERK axis in an in vitro and in vivo model of DR. Both aflibercept and the anti-PlGF antibody exerted protective effects on retinal cells, by inhibition of the ERK pathway. Moreover, aflibercept significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the expression of TNF-α in an in vitro and in vivo model of DR. Therefore, our data suggest that inhibition of PlGF signaling, or a selective blocking, may be useful in the management of early phases of DR when the inflammatory process is largely involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Bianca Maria Platania
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giovanni Giurdanella
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Valeria Tarallo
- Angiogenesis LAB, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics "Adriano Buzzati-Traverso", CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Valeria Cicatiello
- Angiogenesis LAB, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics "Adriano Buzzati-Traverso", CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Sandro De Falco
- Angiogenesis LAB, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics "Adriano Buzzati-Traverso", CNR, Naples, Italy; ANBITION s.r.l, Naples, Italy
| | - Chiara Maria Eandi
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Lausanne, Hôpital Ophtalmique Jules-Gonin, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
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16
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Platania CBM, Dei Cas M, Cianciolo S, Fidilio A, Lazzara F, Paroni R, Pignatello R, Strettoi E, Ghidoni R, Drago F, Bucolo C. Novel ophthalmic formulation of myriocin: implications in retinitis pigmentosa. Drug Deliv 2019; 26:237-243. [PMID: 30883241 PMCID: PMC6419690 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2019.1574936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Myriocin is an antibiotic derived from Mycelia sterilia, and is a potent inhibitor of serine palmitoyltransferase, the enzyme involved in the first step of sphingosine synthesis. Myriocin, inhibiting ceramide synthesis, has a great potential for treatment of diseases characterized by high ceramide levels in affected tissues, such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP). Drug delivery to the retina is a challenging task, which is generally by-passed through intravitreal injection, that represents a risky invasive procedure. We, therefore, developed and characterized an ophthalmic topical nanotechnological formulation based on a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) and containing myriocin. The ocular distribution of myriocin in the back of the eye was assessed both in rabbits and mice using LC-MS/MS. Moreover, rabbit retinal sphingolipid and ceramides levels, after myriocin-NLC (Myr-NLC) eye drops treatment, were assessed. The results demonstrated that Myr-NLC formulation is well tolerated and provided effective levels of myriocin in the back of the eye both in rabbits and mice. We found that Myr-NLC eye drops treatment was able to significantly decrease retinal sphingolipid levels. In conclusion, these data suggest that the Myr-NLC ophthalmic formulation is suitable for pharmaceutical development and warrants further clinical evaluation of this eye drops for the treatment of RP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Bianca Maria Platania
- a Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine , University of Catania , Catania , Italy
| | - Michele Dei Cas
- b Department of Health Sciences , University of Milano , Milano , Italy
| | - Simona Cianciolo
- c Drug Sciences Department , University of Catania , Catania , Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- a Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine , University of Catania , Catania , Italy
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- a Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine , University of Catania , Catania , Italy
| | - Rita Paroni
- b Department of Health Sciences , University of Milano , Milano , Italy
| | - Rosario Pignatello
- c Drug Sciences Department , University of Catania , Catania , Italy.,d NANO-i - Research Center on Ocular Nanotechnology University of Catania , Catania , Italy
| | | | - Riccardo Ghidoni
- b Department of Health Sciences , University of Milano , Milano , Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- a Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine , University of Catania , Catania , Italy.,f Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania , Catania , Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- a Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine , University of Catania , Catania , Italy.,f Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO, University of Catania , Catania , Italy
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17
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Torrisi SA, Geraci F, Tropea MR, Grasso M, Caruso G, Fidilio A, Musso N, Sanfilippo G, Tascedda F, Palmeri A, Salomone S, Drago F, Puzzo D, Leggio GM, Caraci F. Fluoxetine and Vortioxetine Reverse Depressive-Like Phenotype and Memory Deficits Induced by Aβ 1-42 Oligomers in Mice: A Key Role of Transforming Growth Factor-β1. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:693. [PMID: 31293421 PMCID: PMC6598642 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and the presence of depressive symptoms significantly increases the conversion of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) into AD. A long-term treatment with antidepressants reduces the risk to develop AD, and different second-generation antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are currently being studied for their neuroprotective properties in AD. In the present work, the SSRI fluoxetine and the new multimodal antidepressant vortioxetine were tested for their ability to prevent memory deficits and depressive-like phenotype induced by intracerebroventricular injection of amyloid-β (1-42) (Aβ1-42) oligomers in 2-month-old C57BL/6 mice. Starting from 7 days before Aβ injection, fluoxetine (10 mg/kg) and vortioxetine (5 and 10 mg/kg) were intraperitoneally injected daily for 24 days. Chronic treatment with fluoxetine and vortioxetine (both at the dose of 10 mg/kg) was able to rescue the loss of memory assessed 14 days after Aβ injection by the passive avoidance task and the object recognition test. Both antidepressants reversed the increase in immobility time detected 19 days after Aβ injection by forced swim test. Vortioxetine exerted significant antidepressant effects also at the dose of 5 mg/kg. A significant deficit of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), paralleling memory deficits and depressive-like phenotype, was found in the hippocampus of Aβ-injected mice in combination with a significant reduction of the synaptic proteins synaptophysin and PSD-95. Fluoxetine and vortioxetine completely rescued hippocampal TGF-β1 levels in Aβ-injected mice as well as synaptophysin and PSD-95 levels. This is the first evidence that a chronic treatment with fluoxetine or vortioxetine can prevent both cognitive deficits and depressive-like phenotype in a non-transgenic animal model of AD with a key contribution of TGF-β1.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Federica Geraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Tropea
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Margherita Grasso
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | | | | | - Nicolò Musso
- Bio-nanotech Research and Innovation Tower (BRIT), University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giulia Sanfilippo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Agostino Palmeri
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Daniela Puzzo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
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18
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D'Amico AG, Maugeri G, Rasà D, Federico C, Saccone S, Lazzara F, Fidilio A, Drago F, Bucolo C, D'Agata V. NAP modulates hyperglycemic-inflammatory event of diabetic retina by counteracting outer blood retinal barrier damage. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:5230-5240. [PMID: 30374973 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common microvascular complication of diabetes. Prolonged hyperglycemia stimulates inflammatory pathway characterized by the release of some cytokines leading to the impairment of blood retinal barrier (BRB). NAP exerts a protective effect in various eye diseases, including DR. So far, the role of NAP in the modulation of inflammatory event during early phase of this pathology has not been investigated yet. In the current study, we have studied the retinal protective effect of NAP, injected into the eye, in diabetic rats. NAP treatment exerts a dual effect downregulating interleukin (IL)-1β and its related receptors and upregulating IL-1Ra expression. We have also tested the role of this peptide in human retinal epithelial cells (ARPE19) cultured on a semipermeable support and exposed to hyperglycemic-inflammatory insult, representing a in vitro model of diabetic macular edema, a clinical manifestation of DR. The results have shown that NAP prevents outer BRB impairment by upregulating the tight junctions. In conclusion, deepened characterization of NAP action mechanism on hyperglycemic-inflammatory damage may be useful to develop a new strategy to prevent retinal damage during DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Grazia D'Amico
- Department of Human Science and Promotion of Quality of Life, San Raffaele Open University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Grazia Maugeri
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Daniela Rasà
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Concetta Federico
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, Section of Animal Biology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Saccone
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, Section of Animal Biology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology - CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology - CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Velia D'Agata
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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19
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Tirrò E, Massimino M, Romano C, Pennisi MS, Stella S, Vitale SR, Fidilio A, Manzella L, Parrinello NL, Stagno F, Palumbo GA, La Cava P, Romano A, Di Raimondo F, Vigneri PG. Chk1 Inhibition Restores Inotuzumab Ozogamicin Citotoxicity in CD22-Positive Cells Expressing Mutant p53. Front Oncol 2019; 9:57. [PMID: 30834235 PMCID: PMC6387953 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Inotuzumab ozogamicin (IO) is an anti-CD22 calicheamicin immunoconjugate that has been recently approved for the treatment of relapsed or refractory B-Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (r/r B-ALL). We employed both immortalized and primary cells derived from CD22-positive lymphoproliferative disorders to investigate the signaling pathways contributing to IO sensitivity or resistance. We found that the drug reduced the proliferation rate of CD22-positive cell lines expressing wild-type p53, but was remarkably less effective on cells exhibiting mutant p53. In addition, CD22-positive cells surviving IO were mostly blocked in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle because of Chk1 activation that, in the presence of a wild-type p53 background, led to p21 induction. When we combined IO with the Chk1 inhibitor UCN-01, we successfully abrogated IO-induced G2/M arrest regardless of the underlying p53 status, indicating that the DNA damage response triggered by IO is also modulated by p53-independent mechanisms. To establish a predictive value for p53 in determining IO responsiveness, we expressed mutant p53 in cell lines displaying the wild-type gene and observed an increase in IO IC50 values. Likewise, overexpression of an inducible wild-type p53 in cells natively presenting a mutant protein decreased their IC50 for IO. These results were also confirmed in primary CD22-positive cells derived from B-ALL patients at diagnosis and from patients with r/r B-ALL. Furthermore, co-treatment with IO and UCN-01 significantly increased cell death in primary cells expressing mutant p53. In summary, our findings suggest that p53 status may represent a biomarker predictive of IO efficacy in patients diagnosed with CD22-positive malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Tirrò
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Michele Massimino
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Romano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Maria Stella Pennisi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Stefania Stella
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Silvia Rita Vitale
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | | | - Livia Manzella
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Fabio Stagno
- Division of Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Alberto Palumbo
- Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies "G. F. Ingrassia", University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Piera La Cava
- Division of Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Alessandra Romano
- Division of Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
| | - Francesco Di Raimondo
- Division of Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy.,Department of Surgery and Medical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Paolo G Vigneri
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center of Experimental Oncology and Hematology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria "Policlinico-Vittorio Emanuele", Catania, Italy
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20
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Platania CBM, Fidilio A, Lazzara F, Piazza C, Geraci F, Giurdanella G, Leggio GM, Salomone S, Drago F, Bucolo C. Retinal Protection and Distribution of Curcumin in Vitro and in Vivo. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:670. [PMID: 30013474 PMCID: PMC6036289 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR), a secondary complication of diabetes, is a leading cause of irreversible blindness accounting for 5% of world blindness cases in working age. Oxidative stress and inflammation are considered causes of DR. Curcumin, a product with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, is currently proposed as oral supplementation therapy for retinal degenerative diseases, including DR. In this study we predicted the pharmacodynamic profile of curcumin through an in silico approach. Furthermore, we tested the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin on human retinal pigmented epithelial cells exposed to oxidative stress, human retinal endothelial and human retinal pericytes (HRPCs) cultured with high glucose. Because currently marketed curcumin nutraceutical products have not been so far evaluated for their ocular bioavailability; we assessed retinal distribution of curcumin, following oral administration, in rabbit eye. Curcumin (10 μM) decreased significantly (p < 0.01) ROS concentration and TNF-α release in retinal pigmented epithelial cells and retinal endothelial cells, respectively. The same curcumin concentration significantly (p < 0.01) protected retinal pericytes from high glucose damage as assessed by cell viability and LDH release. Among the tested formulations, only that containing a hydrophilic carrier provided therapeutic levels of curcumin in rabbit retina. In conclusion, our data suggest that curcumin, when properly formulated, may be of value in clinical practice to manage retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara B M Platania
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Federica Geraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giovanni Giurdanella
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology - CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology - CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology - CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.,Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology - CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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21
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Bucolo C, Fidilio A, Platania CBM, Geraci F, Lazzara F, Drago F. Antioxidant and Osmoprotecting Activity of Taurine in Dry Eye Models. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2018; 34:188-194. [DOI: 10.1089/jop.2017.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology—CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Chiara Bianca Maria Platania
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Federica Geraci
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology—CERFO, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
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22
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Platania CBM, Fisichella V, Fidilio A, Geraci F, Lazzara F, Leggio GM, Salomone S, Drago F, Pignatello R, Caraci F, Bucolo C. Topical Ocular Delivery of TGF-β1 to the Back of the Eye: Implications in Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18102076. [PMID: 28973964 PMCID: PMC5666758 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18102076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation of the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)/selected small mother against decapentaplegic (SMAD) pathway can be implicated in development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), and the delivery of TGF-β1 could be beneficial for AMD. We developed a new ophthalmic formulation of TGF-β1 assessing the ocular pharmacokinetic profile of TGF-β1 in the rabbit eye. Small unilamellar vesicles (SUV) loaded with TGF-β1 were complemented with Annexin V and Ca2+, and the vitreous bioavailability of TGF-β1 was assessed after topical ocular administration by a commercial ELISA kit. We detected high levels of TGF-β1 (Cmax 114.7 ± 12.40 pg/mL) in the vitreous after 60 min (Tmax) from the topical application of the liposomal suspension. Ocular tolerability was also assessed by a modified Draize’s test. The new formulation was well tolerated. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the novel formulation was able to deliver remarkable levels of TGF-β1 into the back of the eye after topical administration. Indeed, this TGF-β1 delivery system may be useful in clinical practice to manage ophthalmic conditions such as age-related macular degeneration, skipping invasive intraocular injections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Bianca Maria Platania
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Vincenzo Fisichella
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Federica Geraci
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Francesca Lazzara
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Gian Marco Leggio
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Filippo Drago
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Rosario Pignatello
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
- NANO-i-Research Center on Ocular Nanotechnology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy.
- IRCSS Associazione Oasi Maria S.S., Institute for Research on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, 94018 Troina, Italy.
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- Center for Research in Ocular Pharmacology-CERFO University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy.
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23
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Anfuso CD, Olivieri M, Fidilio A, Lupo G, Rusciano D, Pezzino S, Gagliano C, Drago F, Bucolo C. Gabapentin Attenuates Ocular Inflammation: In vitro and In vivo Studies. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:173. [PMID: 28420991 PMCID: PMC5378778 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate the effects of gabapentin, a structural analog of γ-amino butyric acid (GABA), on the inflammatory response of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated rabbit corneal cells (SIRC) and on endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) in rabbits. We investigated the LPS-induced expression of several inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, cPLA2, COX-2, and PGE2 in the SIRC cells with or without gabapentin treatment. Gabapentin treatment significantly (p < 0.05) attenuated cytokines production, cPLA2 activation, COX-2 expression, and PGE2 levels in SIRC. EIU was induced by an intraocular injection of 0.1 μg of LPS in albino rabbit eye. After 7 and 24 h from LPS injection clinical signs of ocular inflammation were examined by slit lamp with or without topical treatment of 0.5% gabapentin. Tears, aqueous, cornea, conjunctiva, and iris-ciliary body were collected and inflammatory biomarkers assessed. Topical treatment with gabapentin significantly (p < 0.05) reduced clinical signs and biomarkers of inflammation compared with the LPS group both at 7 and 24 h. In conclusion, the results generated in the present study suggest that ophthalmic formulation based on gabapentin may be useful in the treatment of inflammatory conditions associated to ocular pain such as uveitis, and that clinical studies to evaluate this possibility may be warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmelina D Anfuso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | - Melania Olivieri
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | - Gabriella Lupo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | | | | | - Caterina Gagliano
- Eye Clinic, Santa Marta Hospital, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CataniaCatania, Italy
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24
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Bucolo C, Fidilio A, Platania C, Geraci F, Drago F. Taurine exerts antioxidant and osmoprotecting activity: an in vitro
and in vivo
study. Acta Ophthalmol 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.2016.0464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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25
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Leggio GM, Torrisi SA, Castorina A, Platania CBM, Impellizzeri AAR, Fidilio A, Caraci F, Bucolo C, Drago F, Salomone S. Dopamine D3 receptor-dependent changes in alpha6 GABAA subunit expression in striatum modulate anxiety-like behaviour: Responsiveness and tolerance to diazepam. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 25:1427-36. [PMID: 25482686 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence indicates that central dopamine (DA) neurotransmission is involved in pathophysiology of anxiety, in particular the DA receptor subtype 3 (D3R). We previously reported that D3R null mice (D3R(-/-)) exhibit low baseline anxiety levels and that acutely administrated diazepam is more effective in D3R(-/-) than in wild type (WT) when tested in the elevated plus maze test (EPM). Here we tested the hypothesis that genetic deletion or pharmacological blockade of D3R affect GABAA subunit expression, which in turn modulates anxiety-like behaviour as well as responsiveness and tolerance to diazepam. D3R(-/-) mice exhibited tolerance to diazepam (0.5mg/kg, i.p.), assessed by EPM, as fast as after 3 day-treatment, performing similarly to untreated D3R(-/-) mice; conversely, WT exhibited tolerance to diazepam after a 14-21 day-treatment. Analysis of GABAA α6 subunit mRNA expression by qPCR in striatum showed that it was about 15-fold higher in D3R(-/-) than in WT. Diazepam treatment did not modify α6 expression in D3R(-/-), but progressively increased α6 expression in WT, to the level of untreated D3R(-/-) after 14-21 day-treatment. BDNF mRNA expression in striatum was remarkably (>10-fold) increased after 3 days of diazepam-treatment in both WT and D3R(-/-); such expression level, however, slowly declined below control levels, by 14-21 days. Following a 7 day-treatment with the selective D3R antagonist SB277011A, WT exhibited a fast tolerance to diazepam accompanied by a robust increase in α6 subunit expression. In conclusion, genetic deletion or pharmacological blockade of D3R accelerate the development of tolerance to repeated administrations of diazepam and increase α6 subunit expression, a GABAA subunit that has been linked to diazepam insensitivity. Modulation of GABAA receptor by DA transmission may be involved in the mechanisms of anxiety and, if occurring in humans, may have therapeutic relevance following repeated use of drugs targeting D3R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gian Marco Leggio
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Alfio Torrisi
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Chiara Bianca Maria Platania
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | - Agata Antonia Rita Impellizzeri
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | - Annamaria Fidilio
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Caraci
- Department of Educational Sciences, Catania University, Catania, Italy; IRCCS Associazione Oasi Maria S.S., Institute for Research on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Troina, Italy
| | - Claudio Bucolo
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, Catania University, Catania, Italy.
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