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de Sio FS, Mecacci G, Calvert S, Heikoop D, Hagenzieker M, van Arem B. Realising Meaningful Human Control Over Automated Driving Systems: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Minds Mach (Dordr) 2022:1-25. [PMID: 35915817 PMCID: PMC9330947 DOI: 10.1007/s11023-022-09608-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The paper presents a framework to realise "meaningful human control" over Automated Driving Systems. The framework is based on an original synthesis of the results of the multidisciplinary research project "Meaningful Human Control over Automated Driving Systems" lead by a team of engineers, philosophers, and psychologists at Delft University of the Technology from 2017 to 2021. Meaningful human control aims at protecting safety and reducing responsibility gaps. The framework is based on the core assumption that human persons and institutions, not hardware and software and their algorithms, should remain ultimately-though not necessarily directly-in control of, and thus morally responsible for, the potentially dangerous operation of driving in mixed traffic. We propose an Automated Driving System to be under meaningful human control if it behaves according to the relevant reasons of the relevant human actors (tracking), and that any potentially dangerous event can be related to a human actor (tracing). We operationalise the requirements for meaningful human control through multidisciplinary work in philosophy, behavioural psychology and traffic engineering. The tracking condition is operationalised via a proximal scale of reasons and the tracing condition via an evaluation cascade table. We review the implications and requirements for the behaviour and skills of human actors, in particular related to supervisory control and driver education. We show how the evaluation cascade table can be applied in concrete engineering use cases in combination with the definition of core components to expose deficiencies in traceability, thereby avoiding so-called responsibility gaps. Future research directions are proposed to expand the philosophical framework and use cases, supervisory control and driver education, real-world pilots and institutional embedding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giulio Mecacci
- Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - Bart van Arem
- Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
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Ashkrof P, Correia GHDA, Cats O, van Arem B. Understanding ride-sourcing drivers' behaviour and preferences: Insights from focus groups analysis. Res Transp Bus Manag 2020; 37:100516. [PMID: 38620316 PMCID: PMC7332937 DOI: 10.1016/j.rtbm.2020.100516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Ride-sourcing has recently been at the centre of attention as the most disruptive mode of transport associated with the so-called shared mobility era. Drivers, riders, the platform, policymakers, and the general public are considered as the main stakeholders of the system. While ride-sourcing platforms have been growing, so did the heightened tension between them and their drivers. That is why understanding drivers' behaviour and preferences is of key importance to ride-sourcing companies in managing their relationship with drivers (also known as driver-partners) and in retaining them in the presence of competence. Ride-sourcing drivers are not only chauffeurs but fleet owners. They can make various operational and tactical decisions that directly influence other stakeholders and the transport system performance as a whole. Conducting a series of focus groups with ride-sourcing drivers in the Netherlands, we have studied their opinions about the system functionalities as well as their possible interactions with the platform and wishes for changes. The focus group results suggest that the main decisions of drivers, which are ride acceptance, relocation strategies, working shift and area in which to work, could be affected by many elements depending on platform strategies, drivers' characteristics, riders' attributes, and exogenous factors. We find that part-time and full-time drivers, as well as experienced and beginning drivers, are characterized by distinctive behaviour. Flexibility and freedom were mentioned as the key reasons for joining the platform while an unfair reputation system, unreliable navigation algorithm, high competition between drivers, passenger-oriented platform, high-commission fee, and misleading guidance were acknowledged as being the main system drawbacks. Based on our findings, we propose a conceptual model that frames the relationship between the tactical and operational decisions of drivers and related factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peyman Ashkrof
- Department of Transport and Planning, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, Delft, Netherlands
| | | | - Oded Cats
- Department of Transport and Planning, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Bart van Arem
- Department of Transport and Planning, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, Delft, Netherlands
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Calvert SC, Heikoop DD, Mecacci G, van Arem B. A human centric framework for the analysis of automated driving systems based on meaningful human control. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/1463922x.2019.1697390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simeon C. Calvert
- Department of Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Daniël D. Heikoop
- Department of Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Giulio Mecacci
- Section of Ethics and Philosophy of Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Bart van Arem
- Department of Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
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Nordhoff S, Kyriakidis M, van Arem B, Happee R. A multi-level model on automated vehicle acceptance (MAVA): a review-based study. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/1463922x.2019.1621406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sina Nordhoff
- Department Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
- Innovation Centre for Mobility and Societal Change, Berlin, Germany
| | - Miltos Kyriakidis
- Laboratory for Energy Systems Analysis, Paul Scherrer Institute,Switzerland
| | - Bart van Arem
- Department Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Riender Happee
- Department Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
- Department Cognitive Robotics, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
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Heikoop DD, Hagenzieker M, Mecacci G, Calvert S, Santoni De Sio F, van Arem B. Human behaviour with automated driving systems: a quantitative framework for meaningful human control. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/1463922x.2019.1574931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniël D. Heikoop
- Transport & Planning, Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Marjan Hagenzieker
- Transport & Planning, Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Giulio Mecacci
- Section of Ethics and Philosophy of Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Simeon Calvert
- Transport & Planning, Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Filippo Santoni De Sio
- Section of Ethics and Philosophy of Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Bart van Arem
- Transport & Planning, Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
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Heikoop DD, de Winter JCF, van Arem B, Stanton NA. Effects of platooning on signal-detection performance, workload, and stress: A driving simulator study. Appl Ergon 2017; 60:116-127. [PMID: 28166869 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2016.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Platooning, whereby automated vehicles travel closely together in a group, is attractive in terms of safety and efficiency. However, concerns exist about the psychological state of the platooning driver, who is exempted from direct control, yet remains responsible for monitoring the outside environment to detect potential threats. By means of a driving simulator experiment, we investigated the effects on recorded and self-reported measures of workload and stress for three task-instruction conditions: (1) No Task, in which participants had to monitor the road, (2) Voluntary Task, in which participants could do whatever they wanted, and (3) Detection Task, in which participants had to detect red cars. Twenty-two participants performed three 40-min runs in a constant-speed platoon, one condition per run in counterbalanced order. Contrary to some classic literature suggesting that humans are poor monitors, in the Detection Task condition participants attained a high mean detection rate (94.7%) and a low mean false alarm rate (0.8%). Results of the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire indicated that automated platooning was less distressing in the Voluntary Task than in the Detection Task and No Task conditions. In terms of heart rate variability, the Voluntary Task condition yielded a lower power in the low-frequency range relative to the high-frequency range (LF/HF ratio) than the Detection Task condition. Moreover, a strong time-on-task effect was found, whereby the mean heart rate dropped from the first to the third run. In conclusion, participants are able to remain attentive for a prolonged platooning drive, and the type of monitoring task has effects on the driver's psychological state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniël D Heikoop
- Transportation Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, Boldrewood Innovation Campus, University of Southampton, Burgess Road, Southampton, SO16 7QF, UK.
| | - Joost C F de Winter
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
| | - Bart van Arem
- Department of Transport & Planning, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
| | - Neville A Stanton
- Transportation Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, Boldrewood Innovation Campus, University of Southampton, Burgess Road, Southampton, SO16 7QF, UK
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Heikoop DD, de Winter JC, van Arem B, Stanton NA. Psychological constructs in driving automation: a consensus model and critical comment on construct proliferation. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/1463922x.2015.1101507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Brookhuis KA, van Driel CJG, Hof T, van Arem B, Hoedemaeker M. Driving with a Congestion Assistant; mental workload and acceptance. Appl Ergon 2009; 40:1019-1025. [PMID: 18823875 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2008.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2007] [Accepted: 06/25/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
New driver support systems are developed and introduced to the market at increasing speed. In conditions of traffic congestion drivers may be supported by a "Congestion Assistant", a system that combines the features of a Congestion Warning System (acoustic warning and gas pedal counterforce) and a Stop & Go system (automatic gas and brake pedal during congestion). To gain understanding of the effects of driving with a Congestion Assistant on drivers, mental workload of drivers was registered under different conditions as well as acceptance of the system. Mental workload was measured by means of physiological registrations, i.e. heart rate, a secondary task and with the aid of subjective scaling techniques. Acceptance was measured with an acceptance scale. The study was carried out in an advanced driving simulator. Driving with the Congestion Assistant while in congestion potentially leads to decreased driver mental workload, whereas just before congestion starts, i.e. developing just noticeable, the system may add to the workload of the driver. Acceptance is generally high after experiencing the system, though not in all respects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel A Brookhuis
- University of Groningen, 9712 TS Groningen/Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands.
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van Arem B, Tsao HSJ. The Development of Automated Vehicle Guidance Systems - Commonalities and Differences Between the State of California and the Netherlands. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.4271/972672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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