DNA Condensation by Peptide-Conjugated PAMAM Dendrimers. Influence of Peptide Charge

Nucleic acid delivery to cells is an important therapeutic strategy that requires the transport of nucleic acids to intracellular compartments and their protection from enzymatic degradation. This can be achieved through the complexation of the nucleic acids with polycations. Poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers and peptide-conjugated dendrimers have been investigated as delivery vectors. Inspired by these studies and the role of flexible peptide domains in protein-DNA interactions, we studied the impact of conjugating two peptides (tails) to generation 2 (G2) PAMAM dendrimers on DNA condensation and polyplex formation. Using gel electrophoresis, dye exclusion assays, atomic force microscopy, and Monte Carlo simulations, it is shown that the steric impact of neutral peptide tails is to hinder the formation of DNA-G2 polyplexes composed of multiple DNA chains. If the tails are negatively charged, which results in overall neutral G2 conjugates, then the interaction of G2 with DNA is hindered. Increasing the net positive charge of the tails resulted in the complexation capacity of G2 with the DNA being restored. While DNA complexation is obtained for a similar net charge balance for G2 and G2 conjugates with positive tails, fewer of the latter are required to achieve a comparable condensation degree. Furthermore, it is shown that about 40% of the DNA remains accessible to binding by small molecules. Overall, this shows that tuning the net charge of peptide tails conjugated to PAMAM dendrimers offers a handle to control the complexation capacity of DNA, which can be explored as a novel route for optimization as gene delivery vehicles.

β-(1 → 3)(1 → 6)glucan from Schizophyllum commune 227E.32: High yield production via glucose/xylose co-metabolization

A co-metabolization of xylose and glucose by Schizophyllum commune 227E.32 wild mushroom for exopolysaccharide (EPS) production is presented. Cultivations performed with S. commune 227E.32 at different xylose concentrations demonstrated that the concentration of 50 g·L-1 of xylose achieved the highest EPS production, around 4.46 g·L-1. Scale-up in a stirred tank reactor (STR) was performed. 10 % inoculum showed the highest cost/benefit ratio regarding sugar conversion and EPS production (Y P/S = 0.90 g·g-1), achieving 1.82 g·L-1 of EPS. Isolation, purification, and characterization were conducted with EPS produced in flasks and STR. GC-MS analysis showed glucose as main monosaccharide constituents for both isolates. 13C NMR and HSQC-edited showed that both EPS isolated consisted of a β-D-Glcp (1 → 3) main chain, partially substituted at O-6 with nonreducing β-D-Glcp ends on every third residue, similar to β-D-glucan isolated from S. commune basidiomes known as schizophyllan (SPG). The Mw was determined by GPC to 1.5 × 106 Da (flasks) and 1.1 × 106 Da (STR). AFM topographs revealed a semi-flexible appearance of the β-D-glucan, consistent with the triple helical structures adopted by SPG and overall contour length consistent with a high molar mass.

Microfluidic dual picoinjection based encapsulation of hemoglobin in alginate microcapsules reinforced by a poly(L-lysine)-g-poly(ethylene glycol)

Hemoglobin (Hb) encapsulation inside polysaccharide hydrogels has been considered a possible red blood cell (RBC) surrogate in transfusiology. Here we report on the microfluidic dual picoinjection assisted synthesis of Hb encapsulated alginate-poly(L-lysine)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) beads. This process is realized by the on-chip injections of blended Hb alginate solutions in emulsified aqueous calcium chloride (CaCl₂) droplets followed by a subsequent injection of an aqueous PLL-g-PEG into each emulsified aqueous droplet. The proposed fabrication approach was realized using a flow-focusing and two picoinjection sites in a single PDMS device. Aqueous CaCl₂ solution was emulsified and infused with Hb-alginate solution as the squeezed droplet passed through the first picoinjection site. The injection of PLL-g-PEG to reinforce the microgel and minimize the protein leaching was realized in the second picoinjection site located downstream from the first in the same microfluidic channel. In this process, monodisperse Hb-alginate-PLL-g-PEG particles with a diameter around the size of RBCs (9 μm) were obtained with around 80% of the 7.5 mg ml^-1 Hb included in the injected aqueous alginate retaining in the obtained microparticles. Microparticles with Hb loading (32.8 pg per bead) and retention (28.8 pg per bead) over a week of storage at 4 °C are in accordance with the average amount of Hb per RBC. The Hb-alginate-PLL-g-PEG microbeads fabricated in the size range of RBCs are significant for further exploration.

Interrelation between swelling, mechanical constraints and reaction-diffusion processes in molecular responsive hydrogels

The net swelling dynamics in molecular responsive hydrogels can be viewed as an integrated effect of discernible processes involving transport of actuating species, reaction with network components like destabilization of physical crosslinks or cleavage of network strands and concomitant network relaxation. Here, we describe a finite element modeling approach coupling these interdependent, underlying processes in hydrogels including oligonucleotide duplexes as physical crosslinks that can be destabilized by a particular molecule. These molecular responsive hydrogels based on acrylamide including either DNA or oligomorpholinos (MO), a DNA analogue, as functional elements can be made with various content of dsDNA or dsMO supported cross-links. The dsDNA or dsMO integrated in the hydrogel can be fabricated with ssDNA designed to competitively displace the connectivity of the dsDNA supported crosslinks, and similar for the MO hydrogels. The overall processes can be framed in a diffusion-reaction scheme. This process is dependent on the concentration of the diffusing species, their diffusion coefficients and their location. Thus, the reaction taking place in particular molecular responsive hydrogels is coupled with the deformations due to swelling and mechanical constraints undergone by the gel. Numerical examples show the importance of coupling reaction-diffusion with mechanical deformations for such gels. Finally, our model is compared to swelling experiments of hemi-spheroidal molecular responsive hydrogels bound to an optical fiber. Parameters of the reaction-diffusion model were obtained by fitting the model to reported experimental data where molecular stimuli designed with different molecular parameters for the competitive displacement reaction were employed in the swelling experiments.

A Titratable Cell Lysis-on-Demand System for Droplet-Compartmentalized Ultrahigh-Throughput Screening in Functional Metagenomics and Directed Evolution

Water-in-oil emulsion droplets are an attractive format for ultrahigh-throughput screening in functional metagenomics and directed evolution applications that allow libraries with more than 10⁷ members to be characterized in a day. Single library members are compartmentalized in droplets that are generated in microfluidic devices and tested for the presence of target biocatalysts. The target proteins can be produced intracellularly, for example, in bacterial hosts in-droplet cell lysis is therefore necessary to allow the enzymes to encounter the substrate to initiate an activity assay. Here, we present a titratable lysis-on-demand (LoD) system enabling the control of the cell lysis rate in Escherichia coli. We demonstrate that the rate of cell lysis can be controlled by adjusting the externally added inducer concentration. This LoD system is evaluated both at the population level (by optical density measurements) and at the single-cell level (on single-cell arrays and in alginate microbeads). Additionally, we validate the LoD system by droplet screening of a phosphotriesterase expressed from E. coli, with cell lysis triggered by inducer concentrations in the μM range. The LoD system yields sufficient release of the intracellularly produced enzymes to bring about a detectable quantity of product (measured by fluorescence in flow cytometry of double emulsions), while leaving viable cells for the downstream recovery of the genetic material.

DNA Aptamer Functionalized Hydrogels for Interferometric Fiber-Optic Based Continuous Monitoring of Potassium Ions

In the present paper, we describe a potassium sensor based on DNA-aptamer functionalized hydrogel, that is capable of continuous label-free potassium ion (K+) monitoring with potential for in situ application. A hydrogel attached to the end of an optical fiber is designed with di-oligonucleotides grafted to the polymer network that may serve as network junctions in addition to the covalent crosslinks. Specific affinity toward K+ is based on exploiting a particular aptamer that exhibits conformational transition from single-stranded DNA to G-quadruplex formed by the di-oligonucleotide in the presence of K+. Integration of this aptamer into the hydrogel transforms the K+ specific conformational transition to a K+ concentration dependent deswelling of the hydrogel. High-resolution interferometry monitors changes in extent of swelling at 1 Hz and 2 nm resolution for the hydrogel matrix of 50 µm. The developed hydrogel-based biosensor displayed high selectivity for K+ ions in the concentration range up to 10 mM, in the presence of physiological concentrations of Na+. Additionally, the concentration dependent and selective K+ detection demonstrated in the artificial blood buffer environment, both at room and physiological temperatures, suggests substantial potential for practical applications such as monitoring of potassium ion concentration in blood levels in intensive care medicine.

Fabrication of monodisperse alginate microgel beads by microfluidic picoinjection: a chelate free approach

Micron-sized alginate hydrogel beads are extensively employed as an encapsulation medium for biochemical and biomedical applications. Here we report on the microfluidic assisted fabrication of calcium alginate (Ca-alginate) beads by on-chip picoinjection of aqueous calcium chloride (CaCl2) in emulsified aqueous sodium alginate (Na-alginate) droplets or by picoinjection of Na-alginate solution in emulsified aqueous CaCl2 droplets. There is no added chelator to reduce the Ca activity in either of the two strategies. The two fabrication strategies are implemented using a flow-focusing and picoinjection modules in a single PDMS chip. Aqueous alginate solution was emulsified and infused with CaCl2 solution as the squeezed droplet pass the picoinjection channel; consequently, monodisperse, spherical, and structurally homogeneous Ca-alginate beads were obtained. Monodisperse alginate microgel populations with a mean diameter in the range of 8 to 28 μm and standard deviation less than 1 μm were successfully generated using microfluidic channels with various dimensions and controlling the flow parameters. Monodisperse but also non-spherical particles with diameters 6 to 15 μm were also fabricated when picoinjecting Na-alginate solution in emulsified aqueous CaCl2 droplets. The Ca-alginate microbeads fabricated with tailormade size in the range from sub-cellular and upwards were in both strategies realized without any use of chelators or change in pH conditions, which is considered a significant advantage for further exploitation as encapsulation process for improved enzymatic activity and cell viability.

On the Determination of Mechanical Properties of Aqueous Microgels-Towards High-Throughput Characterization

Aqueous microgels are distinct entities of soft matter with mechanical signatures that can be different from their macroscopic counterparts due to confinement effects in the preparation, inherently made to consist of more than one domain (Janus particles) or further processing by coating and change in the extent of crosslinking of the core. Motivated by the importance of the mechanical properties of such microgels from a fundamental point, but also related to numerous applications, we provide a perspective on the experimental strategies currently available and emerging tools being explored. Albeit all techniques in principle exploit enforcing stress and observing strain, the realization differs from directly, as, e.g., by atomic force microscope, to less evident in a fluid field combined with imaging by a high-speed camera in high-throughput strategies. Moreover, the accompanying analysis strategies also reflect such differences, and the level of detail that would be preferred for a comprehensive understanding of the microgel mechanical properties are not always implemented. Overall, the perspective is that current technologies have the capacity to provide detailed, nanoscopic mechanical characterization of microgels over an extended size range, to the high-throughput approaches providing distributions over the mechanical signatures, a feature not readily accessible by atomic force microscopy and micropipette aspiration.

Toehold Length of Target ssDNA Affects Its Reaction-Diffusion Behavior in DNA-Responsive DNA-co-Acrylamide Hydrogels

In the present study, we expand on the understanding of hydrogels with embedded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) cross-links, from the overall swelling to characterization of processes that precede the swelling. The hydrogels respond to target DNA strands because of a toehold-mediated strand displacement reaction in which the target strand binds to and opens the dsDNA cross-link. The spatiotemporal evolution of the diffusing target ssDNA was determined using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The concentration profiles revealed diverse partitioning of the target DNA inside the hydrogel as compared with the immersing solution: excluding a nonbinding DNA, while accumulating a binding target. The data show that a longer toehold results in faster cross-link opening but reduced diffusion of the target, thus resulting in only a moderate increase in the overall swelling rate. The parameters obtained by fitting the data using a reaction-diffusion model were discussed in view of the molecular parameters of the target ssDNA and hydrogels.

Morpholino Target Molecular Properties Affect the Swelling Process of Oligomorpholino-Functionalized Responsive Hydrogels

Responsive hydrogels featuring DNA as a functional unit are attracting increasing interest due to combination of versatility and numerous applications. The possibility to use nucleic acid analogues opens for further customization of the hydrogels. In the present work, the commonly employed DNA oligonucleotides in DNA-co-acrylamide responsive hydrogels are replaced by Morpholino oligonucleotides. The uncharged backbone of this nucleic acid analogue makes it less susceptible to possible enzymatic degradation. In this work we address fundamental issues related to key processes in the hydrogel response; such as partitioning of the free oligonucleotides and the strand displacement process. The hydrogels were prepared at the end of optical fibers for interferometric size monitoring and imaged using confocal laser scanning microscopy of the fluorescently labeled free oligonucleotides to observe their apparent diffusion and accumulation within the hydrogels. Morpholino-based hydrogels' response to Morpholino targets was compared to DNA hydrogels' response to DNA targets of the same base-pair sequence. Non-binding targets were observed to be less depleted in Morpholino hydrogels than in DNA hydrogels, due to their electroneutrality, resulting in faster kinetics for Morpholinos. The electroneutrality, however, also led to the total swelling response of the Morpholino hydrogels being smaller than that of DNA, since their lack of charges eliminates swelling resulting from the influx of counter-ions upon oligonucleotide binding. We have shown that employing nucleic acid analogues instead of DNA in hydrogels has a profound effect on the hydrogel response.

Myeloma-derived extracellular vesicles mediate HGF/c-Met signaling in osteoblast-like cells

Multiple myeloma is an incurable cancer of antibody-producing plasma cells. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), a cytokine aberrantly expressed in half of myeloma patients, is involved in myeloma pathogenesis by enhancing myeloma growth and invasiveness, and may play a role in myeloma bone disease by inhibiting osteoblastogenesis. In this study, we investigated whether extracellular vesicles (EVs) may play a role in HGF signaling between myeloma cells and osteoblast-like target cells. EVs from the HGF-positive cell line JJN-3 and the HGF-negative cell line INA-6, and from bone marrow plasma and primary human myeloma cells, were isolated using sequential centrifugation techniques and the presence of HGF on the EV-surface was investigated with ELISA. EVs from both cell lines were added to an established bioassay where HGF is known to induce interleukin-11 secretion in osteoblast-like cells. Our results show that HGF was bound to the surface of JJN-3-derived EVs, while INA-6-derived EVs were negative for HGF. Only JJN-3-derived EVs induced IL-11 secretion in osteoblast-like recipient cells. When osteoblast-like cells were preincubated with a specific HGF-receptor (c-Met) inhibitor, no induction of interleukin-11 was observed. Downstream c-Met phosphorylation was demonstrated by immunoblotting. EVs isolated from bone marrow plasma and primary myeloma cells were HGF-positive for a subset of myeloma patients. Taken together, this work shows for the first time that HGF bound on the surface of myeloma-derived EVs can effectuate HGF/c-Met signaling in osteoblast-like cells. Myeloma-derived EVs may play a role in myeloma bone disease by induction of the osteoclast-activating cytokine interleukin-11 in osteoblasts.

Nanoparticle-Hydrogel Composites: From Molecular Interactions to Macroscopic Behavior

Hydrogels are materials used in a variety of applications, ranging from tissue engineering to drug delivery. The incorporation of nanoparticles to yield composite hydrogels has gained substantial momentum over the years since these afford tailor-making and extend material mechanical properties far beyond those achievable through molecular design of the network component. Here, we review different procedures that have been used to integrate nanoparticles into hydrogels; the types of interactions acting between polymers and nanoparticles; and how these underpin the improved mechanical and optical properties of the gels, including the self-healing ability of these composite gels, as well as serving as the basis for future development. In a less explored approach, hydrogels have been used as dispersants of nanomaterials, allowing a larger exposure of the surface of the nanomaterial and thus a better performance in catalytic and sensor applications. Furthermore, the reporting capacity of integrated nanoparticles in hydrogels to assess hydrogel properties, such as equilibrium swelling and elasticity, is highlighted.

Local Structure of Ca2+ Alginate Hydrogels Gelled via Competitive Ligand Exchange and Measured by Small Angle X-Ray Scattering

Alginates, being linear anionic co-polymers of 1,4-linked residues β-d-ManA (M) and α-l-GulA (G), are widely applied as hydrogel biomaterials due to their favourable in vivo biocompatibility and convenient ionic crosslinking. The "egg-box" model is the prevailing description of the local structure of junction zones that form between the alginate chains and divalent cations, such as Ca2+, when ionic gelation occurs. In the present study we address to what extent signatures of lateral dimerization and further lateral association of junction zones also represent a valid model for the gelation of alginate using the recently reported method of competitive ligand exchange of chelated Ca2+ ions as a method for introducing gelling ions at constant pH. Small angle X-ray scattering with a q range from 0.1 to 3.3 nm-1 was employed to determine local structure in the hydrogel, using a custom-made fluid sample cell inserted in the X-ray beam. The scattering volume was intended to be localized to the contact zone between the two injected aqueous alginate solutions, and data was captured to resolve the kinetics of the structure formation at three different conditions of pH. The data show evolution of the local structure for the Ca2+ induced formation of junction zones in an alginate with 68% G residues, characterized by cross-sectional radii that could be accounted for by a two-component, broken rod like model. The evolution of the two component weight fractions apparently underpinned the connectivity, as reflected in the rheological data.

Self-Coacervation of a Silk-Like Protein and Its Use As an Adhesive for Cellulosic Materials

Liquid–liquid phase separation of biomacromolecules plays a critical role in many of their functions, both as cellular components and in structural assembly. Phase separation is also a key mechanism in the assembly of engineered recombinant proteins for the general aim to build new materials with unique structures and properties. Here the phase separation process of an engineered protein with a block-architecture was studied. As a central block, we used a modified spider silk sequence, predicted to be unstructured. In each terminus, folded globular blocks were used. We studied the kinetics and mechanisms of phase formation and analyzed the evolving structures and their viscoelastic properties. Individual droplets were studied with a micropipette technique, showing both how properties vary between individual drops and explaining overall bulk rheological properties. A very low surface energy allowed easy deformation of droplets and led to efficient infiltration into cellulosic fiber networks. Based on these findings, we demonstrated an efficient use of the phase-separated material as an adhesive for cellulose. We also conclude that the condensed state is metastable, showing an ensemble of properties in individual droplets and that an understanding of protein phase behavior will lead to developing a wider use of proteins as structural polymers.

Interactions between the breast cancer-associated MUC1 mucins and C-type lectin characterized by optical tweezers

Carbohydrate–protein interactions govern many crucial processes in biological systems including cell recognition events. We have used the sensitive force probe optical tweezers to quantify the interactions occurring between MGL lectins and MUC1 carrying the cancer-associated glycan antigens mucins Tn and STn. Unbinding forces of 7.6±1.1 pN and 7.1±1.1 pN were determined for the MUC1(Tn)—MGL and MUC1(STn)—MGL interactions, at a force loading rate of ~40 pN/s. The interaction strength increased with increasing force loading rate, to 27.1±4.4 and 36.9±3.6 pN at a force loading rate of ~ 310 pN/s. No interactions were detected between MGL and MUC1(ST), a glycoform of MUC1 also expressed by breast carcinoma cells. Interestingly, this glycan (ST) can be found on proteins expressed by normal cells, although in this case not on MUC1. Additionally, GalNAc decorated polyethylene glycol displayed similar rupture forces as observed for MUC1(Tn) and MUC1(STn) when forced to unbind from MGL, indicating that GalNAc is an essential group in these interactions. Since the STn glycan decoration is more frequently found on the surface of carcinomas than the Tn glycan, the binding of MUC1 carrying STn to MGL may be more physiologically relevant and may be in part responsible for some of the characteristics of STn expressing tumours.

Sliding Contact Dynamic Force Spectroscopy Method for Interrogating Slowly Forming Polymer Cross-Links

Dynamic single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS), conducted most commonly using AFM, has become a widespread and valuable tool for understanding the kinetics and thermodynamics of fundamental molecular processes such as ligand-receptor interactions and protein unfolding. Where slowly forming bonds are responsible for the primary characteristics of a material, as is the case in cross-links in some polymer gels, care must be taken to ensure that a fully equilibrated bond has first formed before its rupture can be interpreted. Here we introduce a method, sliding contact force spectroscopy (SCFS), that effectively eliminates the kinetics of bond formation from the measurement of bond rupture. In addition, it permits bond rupture measurements in systems where one of the binding partners may be introduced into solution prior to binding without tethering to a surface. Taking as an example of a slowly forming bond, the "eggbox" junction cross-links between oligoguluronic acid chains (oligoGs) in the commercially important polysaccharide alginate, we show that SCFS accurately measures the equilibrated bond strength of the cross-link when one chain is introduced into the sample solution without tethering to a surface. The results validate the SCFS technique for performing single-molecule force spectroscopy experiments and show that it has advantages in cases where the bond to be studied forms slowly and where tethering of one of the binding partners is impractical.

Recovering fluorophore concentration profiles from confocal images near lateral refractive index step changes

Optical aberrations due to refractive index mismatches occur in various types of microscopy due to refractive differences between the sample and the immersion fluid or within the sample. We study the effects of lateral refractive index differences by fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy due to glass or polydimethylsiloxane cuboids and glass cylinders immersed in aqueous fluorescent solution, thereby mimicking realistic imaging situations in the proximity of these materials. The reduction in fluorescence intensity near the embedded objects was found to depend on the geometry and the refractive index difference between the object and the surrounding solution. The observed fluorescence intensity gradients do not reflect the fluorophore concentration in the solution. It is suggested to apply a Gaussian fit or smoothing to the observed fluorescence intensity gradient and use this as a basis to recover the fluorophore concentration in the proximity of the refractive index step change. The method requires that the reference and sample objects have the same geometry and refractive index. The best results were obtained when the sample objects were also used for reference since small differences such as uneven surfaces will result in a different extent of aberration.

Nanoindentation and finite element modelling of chitosan-alginate multilayer coated hydrogels

Composite soft materials are used as compounds for determining the effects of mechanical cues on cell behavior and cell encapsulation and for controlling drug release. The appropriate composite soft materials are conventionally prepared by selective deposition of polymers at the surface of an ionic hydrogel. In the present study we address the impact of a mechanically stratified two-layer structure of these materials on their overall mechanical characterization by applying a combination of nanoindentation, confocal microscopy and finite element modelling. We prepare covalent cross-linked hydrogels based on acrylamide (AAM) and including an anionic group, and impregnate them using a multilayer deposition strategy of alternating exposure to cationic chitosan and anionic alginate. The thickness of the chitosan-alginate layer on the hydrogels was determined to be 0.4 ± 0.05 μm for 4 bilayers, and 0.7 ± 0.1 μm for the 8 bilayer deposition procedure employing a fluorescently labelled chitosan and confocal microscopy. The force-indentation data for the AAM gels were highly reproducible, whereas 77% and 50% of the force-indentation data were reproducible following the 4 and 8 bilayer deposition. The main trends in the reproducible force-distance data were found to yield an apparent increased Young's modulus after the deposition. Finite element modelling showed that adaption of a homogeneous Young's modulus for the specimens with deposited layers yields approximately three times too low stiffness compared to the estimate of the mechanical properties of the outer part in the two-layered mechanical model. The thickness of the multilayer region determined by confocal microscopy was used in the model. This study shows that the mechanical layered property needs to be included in the interpretation of the nanoindentation data when there is a significant mechanical contrast.

Local structure of Ca(2+) induced hydrogels of alginate-oligoguluronate blends determined by small-angle-X-ray scattering

Short oligoguluronates, oligoG's, are reported to affect the ionotropic gelation of alginates both with respect to altered gelation kinetics and elastic properties of the resulting gels. The local structure of Ca(2+) induced changes in oligoguluronates and blends of oligoguluronates and alginates was determined by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Calcium was introduced in the aqueous polysaccharide solutions by in situ release of Ca(2+) from Ca-EGTA. The scattering profiles of the Ca(2+)-induced structures in the alginate-oligoG blends were accounted for by a two-component broken rod-like model, also with an additional term representing structural inhomogeneity by a Debye-Bueche term. Adding oligoG to the alginate yields an increase in the largest cross-sectional radius in the region of fractional Ca(2+) saturation of α-l-GulA units from 0.5 to 1. The time-lapse characterization during the Ca-induced changes in the alginate-oligoG blends shows that oligoG delays the emergence of the more extensive laterally aggregated junction zones.

Energy Landscape of Alginate-Epimerase Interactions Assessed by Optical Tweezers and Atomic Force Microscopy

Mannuronan C-5 epimerases are a family of enzymes that catalyze epimerization of alginates at the polymer level. This group of enzymes thus enables the tailor-making of various alginate residue sequences to attain various functional properties, e.g. viscosity, gelation and ion binding. Here, the interactions between epimerases AlgE4 and AlgE6 and alginate substrates as well as epimerization products were determined. The interactions of the various epimerase–polysaccharide pairs were determined over an extended range of force loading rates by the combined use of optical tweezers and atomic force microscopy. When studying systems that in nature are not subjected to external forces the access to observations obtained at low loading rates, as provided by optical tweezers, is a great advantage since the low loading rate region for these systems reflect the properties of the rate limiting energy barrier. The AlgE epimerases have a modular structure comprising both A and R modules, and the role of each of these modules in the epimerization process were examined through studies of the A- module of AlgE6, AlgE6A. Dynamic strength spectra obtained through combination of atomic force microscopy and the optical tweezers revealed the existence of two energy barriers in the alginate-epimerase complexes, of which one was not revealed in previous AFM based studies of these complexes. Furthermore, based on these spectra estimates of the locations of energy transition states (x_β), lifetimes in the absence of external perturbation (τ⁰) and free energies (ΔG^#) were determined for the different epimerase–alginate complexes. This is the first determination of ΔG^# for these complexes. The values determined were up to 8 k_BT for the outer barrier, and smaller values for the inner barriers. The size of the free energies determined are consistent with the interpretation that the enzyme and substrate are thus not tightly locked at all times but are able to relocate. Together with the observed different affinities determined for AlgE4-polymannuronic acid (poly-M) and AlgE4-polyalternating alginate (poly-MG) macromolecular pairs these data give important contribution to the growing understanding of the mechanisms underlying the processive mode of these enzymes.

Evidence for age-dependent in vivo conformational rearrangement within Aβ amyloid deposits

Deposition of aggregated Aβ peptide in the brain is one of the major hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. Using a combination of two structurally different, but related, hypersensitive fluorescent amyloid markers, LCOs, reporting on separate ultrastructural elements, we show that conformational rearrangement occurs within Aβ plaques of transgenic mouse models as the animals age. This important mechanistic insight should aid the design and evaluation of experiments currently using plaque load as readout.

Responsive hydrogels for label-free signal transduction within biosensors

Hydrogels have found wide application in biosensors due to their versatile nature. This family of materials is applied in biosensing either to increase the loading capacity compared to two-dimensional surfaces, or to support biospecific hydrogel swelling occurring subsequent to specific recognition of an analyte. This review focuses on various principles underpinning the design of biospecific hydrogels acting through various molecular mechanisms in transducing the recognition event of label-free analytes. Towards this end, we describe several promising hydrogel systems that when combined with the appropriate readout platform and quantitative approach could lead to future real-life applications.

Development of an oligonucleotide functionalized hydrogel integrated on a high resolution interferometric readout platform as a label-free macromolecule sensing device

Development of an oligonucleotide functionalized hydrogel integrated on a high resolution interferometric readout platform capable of determining changes in optical length of the hydrogel with 2 nm resolution is described. The hydrogels were designed with hybridized dioligonucleotides grafted to the polymer network making up a network junction point in addition to the covalent cross-links. The hybridized dioligonucleotide network junctions were made with a 10 basepair complementary region flanked by additional basepairs that could aid in destabilizing the junction points in competitive displacement hybridization by the added probe oligonucleotides. The probe oligonucleotide destabilizing the junction point thus induces swelling of the functionalized hydrogel that is sensitive to the concentration of the probe, the sequence, and matching length between the probe and sensing oligonucleotide. This design yields a molecular amplification of the change in the optical length of the gel at least 5-fold compared to a hydrogel where sensing functionality is based on hybridization with a grafted oligonucleotide that is not a part of a network junction. Concentration sensitivity applied for specific label-free detection of oligonucleotide is estimated to be in the nanomolar region. Applications of the resulting oligonucleotide imprinted hydrogel for label-free sensing of probe oligonucleotide sequences or taking advantage of the oligonucleotide sequences designed with aptamer functionalities for determination of other types of molecules are discussed.

Potentiation of histamine release by Microfungal (1-->3)- and (1-->6)-beta-D-glucans

(1-->3)-beta-D-Glucans, a cell wall component in most microfungi, are suggested to play a role in the development of respiratory and general symptoms in organic dust-related diseases. The mechanisms by which they induce these effects are, however, not clear. In the present study, mediator release and its potentiation by the (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan as well as by the (1-->6)-beta-D-glucan found in yeast and other fungi were therefore examined. Blood leucocytes from healthy volunteers and from patients allergic to house dust mite were incubated with (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans with increasing 1,6-branchings: curdlan [a linear (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan], laminarin and scleroglucan, and furthermore with pustulan, a linear (1-->6)-beta-D-glucan. Histamine release was not observed on exposure to the glucans only, but in the presence of anti-immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody or specific antigens, all the glucans investigated led to an enhancement of the IgE-mediated histamine release. The glucans induced a significant potentiation of the mediator release when present at concentrations in the range of 2-5 x 10(-5) M. These results suggest that (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan as well as (1-->6)-beta-D-glucan aggravates IgE-mediated histamine release. Knowledge concerning the effects of glucans on immune responses may be of importance for understanding and treating inflammatory and allergic diseases.

Improved chitosan-mediated gene delivery based on easily dissociated chitosan polyplexes of highly defined chitosan oligomers

Nonviral gene delivery systems based on conventional high-molecular-weight chitosans are efficient after lung administration in vivo, but have poor physical properties such as aggregated shapes, low solubility at neutral pH, high viscosity at concentrations used for in vivo delivery and a slow dissociation and release of plasmid DNA, resulting in a slow onset of action. We therefore developed highly effective nonviral gene delivery systems with improved physical properties from a series of chitosan oligomers, ranging in molecular weight from 1.2 to 10 kDa. First, we established structure-property relationships with regard to polyplex formation and in vivo efficiency after lung administration to mice. In a second step, we isolated chitosan oligomers from a preferred oligomer fraction to obtain fractions, ranging from 10 to 50-mers, of more homogeneous size distributions with polydispersities ranging from 1.01 to 1.09. Polyplexes based on chitosan oligomers dissociated more easily than those of a high-molecular-weight ultrapure chitosan (UPC, approximately a 1000-mer), and released pDNA in the presence of anionic heparin. The more easily dissociated polyplexes mediated a faster onset of action and gave a higher gene expression both in 293 cells in vitro and after lung administration in vivo as compared to the more stable UPC polyplexes. Already 24 h after intratracheal administration, a 120- to 260-fold higher luciferase gene expression was observed compared to UPC in the mouse lung in vivo. The gene expression in the lung was comparable to that of PEI (respective AUCs of 2756+/-710 and 3320+/-871 pg luciferase x days/mg of total lung protein). In conclusion, a major improvement of chitosan-mediated nonviral gene delivery to the lung was obtained by using polyplexes of well-defined chitosan oligomers. Polyplexes of oligomer fractions also had superior physicochemical properties to commonly used high-molecular-weight UPC.

Scleroglucan gelation by in situ neutralization of the alkaline solution

Scleroglucan gels were prepared by neutralization of aqueous alkaline solution of scleroglucan by in situ release of acid. Transition of scleroglucan chains in a disordered state to the triple-helical state result in cross-linking of the polysaccharide. The pH and the storage and loss moduli, G' and G' ', were determined as a function of time after initiating the pH reduction. Experiments were performed in the temperature range from 20 to 90 degrees C and in the polymer concentration range from C(p) = 10-200 mg/mL. The concentration dependence of the apparent plateau value of the storage modulus showed a lower critical concentration, C(p,0), in the range 12-15 mg/mL needed for gelation and a second power dependence of G' on concentration in the range 50-200 mg/mL. In situ pH reduction was achieved using formamide (methanoic acid) or ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate) which hydrolyze in alkaline solution, yielding carboxylic acids. The more rapid hydrolyses of ethyl acetate compared to formamide yielded a faster decrease of pH in solution and a more rapid increase of the storage modulus. The present gelation process of scleroglucan based on the in situ reduction of pH has advantages in applications where external control of the conditions is difficult to achieve.

Macromolecular triplex zipping observed in derivatives of fungal (1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucan by electron and atomic force microscopy

Scleroglucan, a comb-like branched (1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucan, dissolves in water as a stiff, triple-helical structure with the single glucose branches extending from the surface. The aim of this study is to investigate structural changes in the triple-helical structure associated with selective chemical modification of the side chains. Electron and atomic force microscopy, respectively, were used to investigate the macromolecular structures of aldehyde and carboxylated derivatives of scleroglucan-namely, scleraldehyde and sclerox-with different degrees of substitution. Scleraldehyde was observed to have structures resembling the triplex of the unmodified scleroglucan for all degrees of substitution up to 1.0. Additionally, an increasing tendency to aggregate for the higher degrees of substitution was observed. Fully carboxylated scleroglucan, sclerox(1.0), prepared from solutions at ionic strengths below 1.0M, revealed dispersed, flexible, coil-like structures. This indicates an electrostatic-driven strand separation of the scleroglucan triple-helical structure occurring concomitant with an increasing fraction of the side chains bearing carboxylate groups. Annealed sclerox(1.0) samples in aqueous 1.0 and 1.5M NaCl exhibited partly, or completely, reassociated triplex ensembles, with species ranging from apparently fully zipped linear and circular topologies, partly zipped structures with triplex strand separation occurring at the ends, to dispersed single-strands with random coil-like appearance. This study shows that periodate oxidation of the scleroglucan side chains is not a sufficient modification of the side chains to induce dissociation of the triple-helical structure, whereas further oxidation of the side chains to carboxylic groups dissociates the triple-helical structure when the degree of substitution is above 0.6.

The cytokine stimulating activity of (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans is dependent on the triple helix conformation

The immunomodulating properties of comb-like branched (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans scleroglucan, schizophyllan and lentinan depend on branching pattern, molecular weight and higher-order structure. The effect of weight average molecular weight Mw and higher order structure of scleroglucan, on stimulation of human monocytes cultured in vitro to secrete tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) was investigated. The higher order structures of the scleroglucan samples were determined by electron microscopy. The data showed that the samples with a linear wormlike, triple helical structure with Mw less than 50 x 10(4) g/mol or larger than 110 x 10(4) g/mol stimulated the monocytes more efficiently than samples with Mw in the range (67-110) x 10(4) g/mol. The denaturation of the linear triple helices by NaOH (> 0.25 M), followed by neutralization yielded blends of linear and macrocyclic topologies with concomitant irreversible reduction of the cytokine inducing activity compared with the untreated scleroglucans. The dose-dependent ability to activate monocytes to cytokine production was not restored following annealing of the denatured-renatured samples, despite the fact that electron micrographs revealed similar structures of these annealed samples to the starting material. Pre-incubation of monocytes with antibodies against cluster of differentiation antigens CD14 or CD11b reduced the scleroglucan potency to stimulate TNF-alpha secretion mainly for mAb against CD14 in the presence of serum.

Exploring the (1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucan conformational phase diagrams to optimize the linear to macrocycle conversion of the triple-helical polysaccharide scleroglucan

The immunologically important (1 --> 6) comb-like branched (1 --> 3)-beta-D-glucans scleroglucan, schizophyllan, lentinan, and others, exist mainly as linear triple-helical structures in aqueous solution. Partial interconversion from linear to circular topology has been reported to take place following conformational transition of the triple-helical structure and subsequent regeneration of the triplex conformation. We here report on experimental data indicating that complete strand separation of the triple-helical structure is required for this interconversion. NaOH or dimethylsulfoxide was used to induce dissociation of the triplex at combinations of concentrations and temperatures shown by calorimetry to yield a conformational transition of the triplex structures. For the alkaline treatment at 55 degrees C, it is found that up to about 30% of the material readily can be converted to the cyclic topology. This fraction increased to about 60% when the subsequent annealing of the scleroglucan in aqueous solution at pH 7 was carried out at 100 degrees C. Further increase of the annealing temperature yielded a smaller relative amount of cyclic species. The data indicate that the lower molecular weight fraction of the molecular weight distributions can be converted selectively to the macrocyclic topology by conditions that do not yield complete strand separation of the whole sample. These findings add to previous reports by providing more details about how the conditions required for the linear triplex to macrocycle interconversion relate to the conformational properties of the triple-helical structure. Copyright 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The recombinant Azotobacter vinelandii mannuronan C-5-epimerase AlgE4 epimerizes alginate by a nonrandom attack mechanism

The Ca2+-dependent mannuronan C-5-epimerase AlgE4 is a representative of a family of Azotobacter vinelandii enzymes catalyzing the polymer level epimerization of beta-D-mannuronic acid (M) to alpha-L-guluronic acid (G) in the commercially important polysaccharide alginate. The reaction product of recombinantly produced AlgE4 is predominantly characterized by an alternating sequence distribution of the M and G residues (MG blocks). AlgE4 was purified after intracellular overexpression in Escherichia coli, and the activity was shown to be optimal at pH values between 6.5 and 7.0, in the presence of 1-3 mM Ca2+, and at temperatures near 37 degrees C. Sr2+ was found to substitute reasonably well for Ca2+ in activation, whereas Zn2+ strongly inhibited the activity. During epimerization of alginate, the fraction of GMG blocks increased linearly as a function of the total fraction of G residues and comparably much faster than that of MMG blocks. These experimental data could not be accounted for by a random attack mechanism, suggesting that the enzyme either slides along the alginate chain during catalysis or recognizes a pre-existing G residue as a preferred substrate in its consecutive attacks.

Determination of enzymatic hydrolysis specificity of partially N-acetylated chitosans

A new method for determining the specificity of hydrolysis of the linear binary heteropolysaccharide chitosan composed of (1-->4)-linked 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-D-glucopyranose (GlcNAc; A-unit) and 2-amino-2-deoxy-beta-D-glucopyranose (GlcN; D-unit) residues is described. The method is based on the assignments of the 13C chemical shifts of the identity (A- or D-units) of the new reducing and non-reducing ends and the variation in their nearest neighbours, using low molecular weight chitosans with known random distribution of A- and D-units as substrate. A highly N-acetylated chitosan with fraction of acetylated units (FA) of 0.68 and a number-average degree of polymerization (DPn) of 30 was hydrolysed with hen egg-white lysozyme, showing that both the new reducing and non-reducing ends consisted exclusively of A-units, indicating a high specificity for A-units in subsites DL and EL on lysozyme. Our data suggests that the preceding unit of the reducing A-units, is invariable, and based on earlier studies, most probably an A-unit, while the unit following the non-reducing A-units can be either an A- or a D-unit. A more detailed study of the specificity of lysozyme at subsite DL was performed by hydrolyzing a more deacetylated chitosan (FA = 0.35 and DPn of 20) to a DPn of 9, showing that even for this chitosan more than 90% of the new reducing ends were acetylated units. Thus, lysozyme depolymerizes partially N-acetylated chitosans by preferentially hydrolyzing sequences of acetylated units bound to site CL, DL and EL of the active cleft, while there is no specificity between acetylated and deacetylated units to site FL. In addition, a moderately N-acetylated chitosan with fraction of acetylated units (FA) of 0.35 and a DPn of 20 was hydrolysed with Bacillus sp. No. 7-M chitosanase, showing that both the new reducing and non-reducing ends consisted exclusively of D-units. Our data suggests that the nearest neigbour to the D-unit at the reducing end is invariable, and based on earlier studies, most probably a D-unit, while the unit following the non-reducing D-units can be either an A- or a D-unit. We conclude that the Bacillus chitosanase hydrolyzes partially N-acetylated chitosan by preferentially attacking sequences of three consecutive deacetylated units, hypothetical subsites CC, DC and EC, where the cleavage occur between sugar units bound to subsites DC and EC. A hypothetical subsite FC on the chitosanase show no specificity with respect to A- and D-units. The new NMR method described herein offers a time and labour-saving alternative to the procedure of extensive hydrolysis of the binary heteropolysaccharide chitosan and subsequent isolation and characterization of the oligosaccharides.

Conformation of (2-->1)-beta-D-fructan in aqueous solution

The conformation and dilute solution properties of (2-->1)-beta-D-fructan in aqueous solution were studied by gel permeation chromatography, low-angle laser light-scattering photometry, viscometry, small-angle X-ray scattering and electron microscopy. Fractions covering a broad range of weight-average molecular weights (Mw) from 1.49 x 10(4) to 5.29 x 10(6) were obtained from a native sample by ultrasonic degradation and fractional precipitation. For Mw < 4 x 10(4), the intrinsic viscosity [eta] varies with Mw0.71, indicating that the fructan chain behaves as a random coil expanded by an excluded-volume effect in this molecular weight region. For Mw > 10(5), [eta] exhibits an unusually weak dependence on Mw and finally becomes almost independent of molecular weight. This behaviour is interpreted in terms of a globular conformation of the high-molecular-weight fructan molecules. Small-angle X-ray-scattering measurements and electron microscopic observations support this interpretation of the values of [eta] observed.

An antitumor, branched (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan from a water extract of fruiting bodies of Cryptoporus volvatus

A water-soluble, (1-->6)-branched (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan (H-3-B) was isolated from a hot-water extract of the fruiting bodies of the fungus, Cryptoporus volvatus (Basidiomycetes). Enzymatic analysis using exo-(1-->3)-beta-D-glucanase and methylation analysis indicated that this polysaccharide has a main chain composed of beta-(1-->3)-linked D-glucopyranosyl residues, and single, beta-(1-->6)-linked D-glucopyranosyl residues attached as side chains to, on average, every fourth sugar residue of the main chain. This structure was confirmed by 13C NMR spectra of the glucan in Me2SO-d6. The weight-average molecular weight (Mw) of H-3-B was determined to be 44.0 x 10(4) by gel permeation chromatography equipped with a low-angle laser-light-scattering photometer. The electron microscopic observations showed that H-3-B and its sonicated sample (S-H-3-B, Mw = 13.7 x 10(4)) can be described as linear worm-like chains. The mass per unit length for native and sonicated H-3-B was determined to be 1750 and 1780 g mol-1 nm-1, respectively, from the contour lengths obtained by electron microscopy and the molecular weights. These values are in good agreement with that expected for the triple stranded structure. A sample denatured in 0.1 M NaOH and subsequently renatured by neutralization showed a mixture of linear and cyclic structures, and larger aggregates with less well-defined morphology. The H-3-B and S-H-3-B had antitumor activity against the Sarcoma 180 tumor.

Conformation, order-disorder conformational transitions and gelation of non-crystalline polysaccharides studied using electron microscopy

Direct imaging of polysaccharides using transmission electron microscopy (EM) is an important alternative to physical characterization of non-crystalline polysaccharides in solution. The polymer nature of stiff-chain polysaccharides is quite apparent from direct visualization of the electron micrographs, despite the fact that commonly employed preparation techniques reduce the resolution limit to about 1-2 nm. Electron microscopy has recently been used to study polysaccharides with emphasis both on quantitative properties like contour length, end-to-end distance and chain stiffness, and on qualitative structural features such as cyclization at the macromolecular level. The structural richness observed for polysaccharides of the beta-D0glucan family after a denaturation-renaturation treatment of the specimen, in particular, illustrates the unique potential of EM as a tool for obtaining conformational information about carbohydrate macromolecules. Examples of the latter also include the recent discoveries of cyclic beta-D-glucan and l-carrageenan structures. The EM technique provides information that is not only complementary to what can be obtained using other physical techniques, but also offers important insight otherwise masked by the averaging implicit in most physical techniques used to study aqueous polysaccharide solutions.

Physicochemical properties of (1-->6)-branched (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans. 1. Physical dimensions estimated from hydrodynamic and electron microscopic data

The physical dimensions of several (1-->6) branched (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan samples obtained from different organisms and their derivatives have been studied by electron microscopy, light scattering measurements, viscometry, and gel permeation chromatography. The electron micrographs indicate that in most samples these biopolymers are adequately described as linear worm-like coils. A sample reconstituted from alkaline media appeared as a blend of the linear, circular, and aggregated polymer morphologies. The average mass per unit length, ML = Mw/Lw for the macroscopically linear samples, was estimated to be 2100 +/- 200 g mol-1 nm-1. The parameter ML was determined from the contour lengths obtained by electron microscopy and the molecular weight by light scattering measurements. The observed ML was consistent with the triple-helical structure reported from x-ray diffraction studies and observed degree of side-chain substitution. From the molecular snapshots shown in the electron micrographs, the persistence lengths of these beta-D-glucans were determined to be 140 +/- 30 nm. The experimentally determined intrinsic viscosities were consistent with these estimates of ML and persistence length. Comparison of the molecular weight distributions obtained from gel permeation chromatography and those deduced from the electron micrographs indicates that number and weight average contour lengths are more reliable than z and z + 1 averages.

Macrocyclization of polysaccharides visualized by electron microscopy

Topological features of the polysaccharides schizophyllan, l-carrageenan and gellan gum were studied using electron microscopy. Electron micrographs of schizophyllan not subjected to any thermal or solvent composition history destabilizing the triple helix, show stiff, linear chains consistent with the structure being triple helical and with contour length proportional to the molecular weight in solution. A blend of linear, cyclic and hairpin topologies and higher molecular weight clusters were observed after renaturation, i.e. return to conditions favouring the triple helical structure, from solvent conditions dissociating the triple helix. Electron micrographs of l-carrageenan in salt-free solution reveal linear extended structures. Addition of 0.15 M LiI to the solution before preparation for electron microscopy, i.e. salt conditions that favour ordering but not gelation, yields a large fraction of cyclic structures with circumference of different lengths. Likewise, adding KCl to aqueous gellan gum changes their appearance from dispersed polymers to suprastrands with several associated chains. Macrocyclic species can also be observed in gellan gum after the addition of a gel-promoting salt. The tendency to form macrocyclic structures in competition with intermolecular aggregates is determined by the three factors: (1) chain stiffness relative to overall length; (2) parallel or antiparallel alignment of interacting chain segments; and (3) polymer concentration. The present study indicates that electron microscopy provides information about the topology adopted by polysaccharides.

Thermally induced conformational transition of double-stranded xanthan in aqueous salt solutions

The thermally induced conformational transition of double-stranded xanthans (degree of pyruvate substitution, DSp = 0.45) having Mw = 3.1, 5.7, and 20.3 x 10(5) has been studied in aqueous salt solutions by high-sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The double strandedness of these samples in the ordered conformation was ascertained by the value of mass per unit length, ML = 2090 +/- 270 g mol-1 nm-1, which was determined from the contour length obtained by electron microscopic observations and the molecular weight by light scattering measurements. The temperature at half completion of the transition T 1/2 for these samples increased linearly with the logarithm of the cation (Na+, K+) concentration. The plot of 1/T1/2 vs the natural logarithm of cation (Na+) concentration in mM for the sample with Mw = 5.7 x 10(5) (15-SX) yielded the equation 10(3)/T1/2 = 3.45-0.159 ln [Na+]. The specific enthalpy delta hcal for 15-SX, essentially independent of salt concentration above 20 mM, was 8.31 +/- 0.39 J/g (SD, n = 6). No systematic dependence of molecular weight on the transition temperature and the enthalpy was observed. Application of the Manning polyelectrolyte theory to the system using the DSC data suggested that the separation of the double strand of xanthan into two single chains was not completed at the temperature where the endothermic peak was finished. This suggestion is consistent with recent findings by light scattering measurements as a function of temperature. Our DSC study was extended to include four other samples from various sources. It was found that T1/2 and delta hcal depend on the pyruvate contents of the samples. For example, the t1/2 (t1/2/degrees C = T1/2/K - 237.15) values for samples with high pyruvate content (DSp = 0.9) and depyruvated (DSp = 0.14) in 20 mM aqueous NaCl were 48.8 and 85.3 degrees C, respectively. Two other samples showed relatively broad DSC curves having shoulders, which were resolved into two independent components. Thermodynamic parameters for each component were examined as a function of salt concentration, and the results obtained were interpreted in terms of the heterogeneity of the pyruvate content of the samples.