[Painful ejaculation]

OBJECTIVE

To clarify definition, epidemiology, diagnosis, evaluation, etiologies and treatment of painful ejaculation (PE).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of the literature performed by searching the Medline database using keywords ejaculation, orgasm, pain, pelvic pain, sexual behavior.

RESULTS

PE is a pelviperineal pain caused by ejaculation or orgasm. Its prevalence rate is between 1 and 4% amongst the general population. Mainly located in the penis, pain usually lasts less than 5 minutes. Assessment is clinical and there is no level of evidence about the strategy of complementary investigations. Benign prostatic hyperplasia, chronic pelvic pain syndrome, radical prostatectomy, prostate brachytherapy and some antidepressant medications are the best estimated etiologies found in the literature. A link between urogenital infections and PE is likely but not clearly established. Alpha-blockers had good therapeutic results in few low level of evidence studies.

CONCLUSION

The assessment of PE is not clearly defined. Some etiologies are known but PE may be a functionnal pain. Only high level of evidence studies would validate the use of the alpha-blockers as an efficient therapeutic option.

[Orgasm after curietherapy with permanent iodine-125 radioimplants for localized prostate cancer]

OBJECTIVES

Orgasm is a domain of male sexuality that remains underreported in literature. Our aim was to realize the first detailed analysis of orgasm in patients treated by 125 I permanent prostate brachytherapy for localized prostate cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In a series of 270 sexually active men treated by prostate brachytherapy (125I permanent implantation), 241 (89%), mean age of 65 (43-80), participated in a mailed survey about sexual function after a mean time of 36 months (9-70). Erectile and ejaculatory functions and orgasm were explored using a mailed questionnaire. Two questions focused on orgasm. The first was about quality of orgasm (fast/intense/late, difficult/weak/absent) and the second about the presence of painful orgasm and its frequency (always/sometimes/often).

RESULTS

After prostate brachytherapy, 81.3% of sexually active men conserved ejaculation and 90% orgasm. There was a significant deterioration of the quality of orgasm (P=0.0001). More than 50% of the patients had an altered orgasm (weak, difficult, absent) after brachytherapy, vs 16% before implantation (P=0.001). Men with a diminished ejaculation volume often had a weak/difficult orgasm (P=0.007). Neoadjuvant hormonal therapy did not seem to impact the quality of orgasm or the frequency of painful ejaculation. Patients who had an IIEF-5 score higher than 12 had frequently intense orgasm (26.7% vs 2.7%; P<0.001) after brachytherapy. Sixty patients (30.3%) experienced often/sometimes painful ejaculation 12.9% (n=31) before implantation (P=0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Most of the patients treated by prostate brachytherapy conserved orgasm after treatment. However, most of the patients described a deterioration of the quality of orgasm.

[Clinical interview and clinical examination of patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain]

INTRODUCTION

Patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain sometimes report major complaints with no objective value that help to "validate" this pain other than by the patient's own interpretation of the pain. The purpose of this article is to describe the essential elements of the clinical interview and clinical examination in the diagnostic approach to patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A review of the literature and a description of our experience was performed to describe the clinical interview and clinical examination of patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

Clinical interview of the patient is designed to define the characteristics of the pain: mode of installation, topography, irradiation, type, remission, nocturnal waking, and aggravating or limiting factors. It must also look for associated clinical signs: urinary, gastrointestinal, gynaecological, sexual, cutaneous and neurological. The intensity of the pain is evaluated on an analogue scale. A complete clinical examination of the pelvis and perineum must be performed looking for an organic cause: neurological, dermatological, urogenital, spinal, myofascial and sympathetic nervous system. Digital rectal and vaginal (pelvic) examinations play an important role in the detection of trigger points.

CONCLUSION

A well-conducted clinical interview and clinical examination can help to elucidate a large proportion of cases of chronic pelvic and perineal pain and are an essential in part of the diagnostic approach.

[Pelvic sexual pain]

OBJECTIVE

To colligate the clinical and ethiopathogenical elements to take into account in the assessment of sexual activity-related chronic pelvic and perineal pain, in the male as well as in the female subject.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Review of articles and consensus conferences published on this subject in the Medline (Pubmed) database, selected according to their scientific relevance.

RESULTS

In the female subject, only dyspareunia has benefitted from a consensual definition. Deep dyspareunia must start investigations in search of pelvic organs disorders, endometriosis, painful bladder syndrome adhesions. Superficial dyspareunia can be a part of provoked vestibulodynia. Vaginismus can be linked to a local disorder, but can also be caused by an excess of nociception. In the male subject, painful ejaculation must start investigation in search of a local urological disorder. It can also be of iatrogenous origin, or be included in a chronic pelvic pain syndrome. Although less documented, other pelvic and perineal pain syndrome, coitus-related or not, exist in the male subject.

CONCLUSION

Assessment of these sexual dysfunctions is primarily based on history taking and clinical examination. In the absence of systematically researched organic disorder, these pains can be part of functional disorders, in which case a global assessment must be undergone, by taking into account all aspects of the pain, including emotional aspects.

[Symptomatic approach to chronic penile pain]

OBJECTIVE

To describe the aetiologies of non-cancer chronic penile pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching the Medline database (National Library of Medicine). Search terms were either medical subject heading (MeSH) keywords (pain, penis, penile diseases) or terms derived from the title or abstract. Search terms were used alone or in combinations by using the "AND" operator. The literature search was conducted from 1990 to the present time.

RESULTS

Clinical interview and physical examination are essential elements of the assessment of chronic penile pain. The aetiologies of chronic penile pain include local diseases, referred pain, neuropathic pain, psychological or psychiatric disorders and penile pain syndrome. Neuropathic pain is related to compression of the dorsal nerve of the penis, derived from the pudendal nerve, at the inferior border of the pubis. This nerve compression syndrome, often associated with cycling, can also be responsible for decreased sensitivity of the glans and penis, genital paraesthesia (numbness) and sometimes erectile dysfunction. Penile pain syndrome, defined as pain located in the penis, but not due to an urethral cause, documented infection or another clinically apparent disease, is a diagnosis of exclusion.

CONCLUSION

The diagnosis of non-cancer chronic penile pain is essentially clinical. Compression of the dorsal nerve of the penis is part of the context of penile pain syndrome, corresponding to a diagnosis of exclusion.

[Specific treatments for chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome]

OBJECTIVE

To review the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching the Medline database (National Library of Medicine). Search terms were either Medical subject heading (MeSH) keywords (antibacterial agents, pelvic pain, placebos, prostatitis, treatment) or terms derived from the title or abstract. Search terms were used alone or in combinations by using the "AND" operator. The literature search was conducted from 1990 to the present time.

RESULTS

The treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis is based on the use of antibiotics, primarily fluoroquinolones, for 4 to 6 weeks, but no consensus has been reached concerning the standard treatment of CP/CPPS. A review of the literature failed to identify any recognized and validated treatments for CP/CPPS, but several conclusions can be drawn: placebo gives satisfactory results in a considerable number of patients; antibiotics are not recommended; alpha-blocking agents may be effective in recently diagnosed, previously untreated patients, provided they are prescribed for 12 weeks to 6 months; invasive surgery of the prostate and bladder neck is not recommended.

CONCLUSION

Progress in the treatment of CP/CPPS will require more extensive basic and clinical research. Only randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials including a large number of patients, and using the NIH-Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index questionnaire (NIH-CPSI) as evaluation tool will be able to provide reliable conclusions. The use of patient subgroups selected according to the predominant symptoms could be contributive.

[Treatment algorithms for the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain: from syndrome to treatment]

INTRODUCTION

The treatment of patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain is often complex and involves a number of different parameters. The purpose of this article is to propose a series of treatment algorithms to facilitate the therapeutic management of patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching Pubmed for articles on treatment of chronic pelvic and perineal pain. Treatment algorithms were established for each type of pain syndrome.

RESULTS

Treatment algorithms were defined for the various types of chronic pain syndrome: pudendal nerve entrapment syndrome, chronic pelvic pain syndrome, painful bladder syndrome, vulvar pain syndrome, epididymotesticular pain syndrome, complex pelvic pain syndrome. Therapeutic management is proposed for each algorithm.

CONCLUSION

The proposed algorithms are designed to be a clinical aid and do not constitute a comprehensive approach to the management of patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

[Specific treatments for painful bladder syndrome]

INTRODUCTION

Painful bladder syndrome is defined as chronic pelvic pain present for more than 6 months, causing discomfort perceived as being related to the bladder and accompanied by a persistent and strong urge to urinate or urinary frequency. The purpose of this article is to review the treatment of painful bladder syndrome.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature was performed by searching PUBMED for articles on specific treatments for painful bladder syndrome.

RESULTS

Many treatments have been proposed for the management of painful bladder syndrome: local intravesical treatments (glucosaminoglycan [pentosan polysulfate], dimethylsulfoxide [DMSO], heparin, bacillus Calmette-Guérin [BCG], anticholinergic agents [oxybutynin, etc.] or oral treatments [glucosaminoglycan (pentosan polysulfate), antihistamines, antidepressants, immunosuppressives, etc.]) with an action on the pathophysiology of this syndrome. The efficacy of these various treatments has been limited, with trials based on small numbers of patients and not always conducted according to a randomized, prospective design. Other salvage treatments (neuromodulation, botulinum toxin, surgery, etc.) have also been reported with limited efficacy, but allowing salvage of treatment failures.

CONCLUSION

The therapeutic management of painful bladder syndrome is complex. The large number of proposed treatment modalities present a limited efficacy with discordant results from one study to another making comparisons and analyses difficult.

[The doctor-patient relationship in chronic pelvic and perineal pain]

OBJECTIVE

To analyse the doctor-patient relationship from the patient's point of view and from the doctor's point of view.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Experience of a chairman of a chronic pelvic and perineal pain patient association (AFAP-NP) and experience of doctors specialized in chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

Management of a patient with chronic pelvic and perineal pain requires knowledge and understanding of the patient's trajectory disease, the history of the disease and the patient's hopes and disappointments, and evaluation of the patient's personality and family, social and work environment.

CONCLUSION

As pain is an emotional experience, the type of doctor-patient relationship determines the quality of subsequent management. A number of basic principles should be applied: believe the patient, avoid making the patient feel responsible for failure, avoid overestimating the secondary benefits, avoid making the patient passive and dependent, learn to reinterpret the patient's symptoms, ask "how" does the pain persist rather than "why", clearly define the patient's demand and adapt management to realistic and accessible objectives.

[Therapeutic management of chronic intrascrotal pain]

OBJECTIVE

To resume available therapeutic options for intra scrotal chronic pain, including surgical procedures, and to analyze their efficiency through a review of published data.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of articles published on this topic in the Medline (PubMed) database, selected according to their scientific relevance.

RESULTS

Initial treatment of epididydimal and testicular pain should always be conservative. Mean success rates of the different therapeutic options varies from 27% to 90%. Surgery on the scrotal content should be considered only if: (1) Pain can be explained by a local intra scrotal cause; (2) Medical and conservative treatments have failed; (3) Nerve block has been tried and is efficient in relieving pain; (4) Patients are informed of the risk of failure. Conservative surgical procedure (epididymectomy, vasovasostomy) have a success rate of 50-70%. Microsurgical spermatic cord denervation yields better results, while preserving testis and epididymis integrity. Failure is still possible (15%). Orchidectomy should be avoided if possible.

CONCLUSIONS

Levels of evidence concerning indications and efficiency of these surgical procedures are low. Patients suffering from recurring or implacable chronic testicular and epididymal pain require a multidisciplinary care.

[Management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain after suburethral tape placement for urinary incontinence]

INTRODUCTION

The surgical treatment of stress urinary incontinence is essentially based on TVT or TOT suburethral tape placement. The purpose of this article is to review the literature on the diagnostic and therapeutic approach to chronic pelvic and perineal pain following suburethral tape placement for urinary incontinence.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature was performed by searching Pubmed for articles on pelvic and perineal pain following suburethral tape placement.

RESULTS

The role of suburethral tape in the pathogenesis of pain is essentially based on the fact that pain occurs immediately or over the days following tape placement. The clinical features are usually fairly nonspecific, with pelvic myofascial pain, possibly associated with direct or indirect nerve lesions (obturator nerve or pudendal nerve). Local infiltration of anaesthetic along the tape is performed for diagnostic purposes to confirm the aetiology of the pain and can also have a temporary therapeutic efficacy. Surgical removal of the tape was performed with satisfactory intermediate-term results in about two out of three cases.

CONCLUSION

The frequency of chronic pelvic and perineal pain following suburethral tape placement appears to be underestimated. The diagnostic approach is based on complete clinical examination and infiltration along the tape and any nerves involved. Surgical removal of the tape provides the best intermediate-term analgesic results.

[General principles of the diagnostic approach to chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain]

INTRODUCTION

Chronic postoperative pain has been defined as pain arising after a surgical operation, present for at least 2 months, with no organic (active cancer or chronic infection) or pre-existing cause. The purpose of this article is to review the aetiological and diagnostic assessment of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching PUBMED for articles on the diagnostic approach to chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

The chronology of the symptoms, i.e., rapid onset of pain following a surgical procedure that does not subsequently resolve, is a leading argument to incriminate the surgical procedure in the pathogenesis of the pain. Clinical examination of the scars and detailed analysis of the topography and type of pain are essential elements in the analysis of this pain. The primary objective of complementary investigations (imaging, EMG, etc.) is to eliminate a differential diagnosis, as they are normal in the case of chronic postoperative pain. A test block of a nerve or trigger point is the main test performed to determine the level of the lesion responsible for pain.

CONCLUSION

The aetiological and diagnostic assessment of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain requires a detailed clinical analysis based on examination of the scars and analysis of the clinical signs of muscle and nerve lesions. A local test block confirms the level of the lesion.

[Neurostimulation techniques in the therapeutic management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain]

INTRODUCTION

Neuromodulation is a nonspecific analgesic treatment whose mechanism of action has not yet been elucidated. The purpose of this article is to review the techniques and results of neuromodulation in the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature was performed by searching PUBMED for articles on the various neuromodulation techniques used in the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

Several levels of neuromodulation of the somatic nervous system have been evaluated in the management of pelvic pain: transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), percutaneous nerve stimulation (PNS), nerve root or nerve trunk stimulation, spinal cord stimulation. An improvement was obtained in an average of two thirds of cases, but with declining efficacy over time. The various studies were difficult to compare due to the heterogeneous study populations and very diverse endpoints. Interesting studies on the value of autonomic nervous system intervention have been described, but with no specific trials of neuromodulation.

CONCLUSION

The place of neuromodulation in the management of patients with chronic pelvic and perineal pain has yet to be defined, as it is too frequently used as a last resort. It appears important to develop and analyse this treatment modality in large-scale, randomized, prospective studies.

[Somatic nerve block in the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain]

INTRODUCTION

Chronic pelvic and perineal pain can be related to a nerve lesion caused by direct or indirect trauma or by an entrapment syndrome, which must then be demonstrated by a test block. The purpose of this article is to review the techniques and modalities of somatic nerve block in the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching PubMed for articles on somatic nerve infiltrations in the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

Nerves involved in pelvic and perineal pain are: thoracolumbar nerves (obturator, ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric and genitofemoral) and sacral nerves (pudendal and inferior cluneal branches of the posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh). Infiltration has a dual objective: to confirm the diagnostic hypothesis by anaesthetic block and to try to relieve pain. Evaluation of the severity and site of the pain before and immediately after the test block is essential for interpretation of the block. The various infiltration techniques for each nerve are described together with their respective advantages, disadvantages and risk of complications.

CONCLUSION

Somatic nerve blocks are an integral part of the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain and are predominantly performed under CT guidance in order to be as selective as possible. Once the diagnosis and the level of the nerve lesion have been defined, more specific therapeutic procedures can then be proposed.

[Management of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain due to parietal somatic nerve damage]

INTRODUCTION

All surgical procedures require an incision with a risk of nerve damage at the site of the scar or as a result of fibrotic scar tissue. The purpose of this article is to describe the management of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain due to parietal somatic nerve damage.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature was performed by searching PUBMED for articles on the management of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain due to parietal somatic nerve damage.

RESULTS

Postoperative lesions of parietal somatic nerves (ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, genitofemoral, pudendal, obturator, femoral) are frequent after pelvic surgery. Clinical examination of the scars (trigger zone) and detailed analysis of the topography and type of pain are essential elements in the analysis of this pain. Infiltration of local anaesthetic at the trigger point or along the nerve has a diagnostic value. Corticosteroid infiltrations and minimally invasive treatments such as pulsed radiofrequency have provided more or less lasting improvement of the symptoms. Surgical nerve release together with resection of fibrosis and removal of prosthetic material provides good long-term results. The surgical approach depends on the nerve concerned and the level of the lesion.

CONCLUSION

The management of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain due to parietal somatic nerve damage is based on local infiltration of anaesthetics and corticosteroids. Nerve release surgery with resection of fibrosis provides the best long-term results.

[Anatomy and physiology of chronic pelvic and perineal pain]

OBJECTIVE

To determine the mechanisms involved in the regulation of pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Description of the anatomical pathways mediating nociceptive transmission and the physiological mechanisms of pain control.

RESULTS

The pelvis and perineum do not have the same innervation. The pelvis is innervated by the sympathetic nervous system, while the perineum is innervated by the somatic nervous system via sacral nerve roots (and the pudendal nerve) and the thoracolumbar sympathetic nervous system. Systems of regulation of nociceptive messages are present at all levels of the nervous system. Two of these systems are essential: one situated in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord (gate control) and another supraspinal system (descending inhibitory system). Via a series of filters and amplifiers, the nociceptive message is integrated and analysed in the cerebral cortex, with interconnections with various areas, especially involving memory and emotion.

CONCLUSION

Excessive nociceptive stimulation must be clearly distinguished from dysfunction of pain control systems (for example neuropathic pain). The definition of pain: "unpleasant sensory and emotional experience related to a real or potential tissue lesion or described in terms of such a lesion" clearly indicates that not all pain is inevitably related to a persistent and visible cause. Convergence phenomena identified between nerve pathways of the various systems and pelvic organs account for the possible diffusion of visceral nociceptive messages and interactions between organs. A good knowledge of anatomy is essential to understand the patient's description of the pain, and a good knowledge of the modalities of pain control is essential to correctly adapt treatment strategies (drugs, neurostimulation, psycho-behavioural therapy, etc.).

[Predictive factors and prevention of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain]

INTRODUCTION

Chronic postoperative pain has been defined as pain arising after a surgical operation, present for at least 2 months, with no organic (active cancer or chronic infection) or preexisting cause. The purpose of this article is to review the risk factors and prevention of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching PubMed for articles on risk factors and prevention of chronic postoperative pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

Chronic postoperative pain is frequent, disabling and represent a high cost to the community. This pain is generated by variable and complex interactions between the surgical procedure (the operated zone, perioperative management, the disease requiring the operative procedure) and the patient (age, gender, genetics, concomitant diseases, personal history). The multifactorial nature of chronic postoperative pain suggests the need for multidisciplinary management with prevention and reduction of the main risk factors. Similarly, appropriate management of acute postoperative pain has a major impact on the risk of chronic pain.

CONCLUSION

A good knowledge of the risk factors and appropriate prevention can decrease the incidence and consequences of chronic postoperative pain.

[Global approach to chronic pelvic and perineal pain: from the concept of organ pain to that of dysfunction of visceral pain regulation systems]

OBJECTIVE

Analysis of complex pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of the literature concerning the various types of functional pelvic pain.

RESULTS

Various forms of pelvic pain are frequently associated: painful bladder syndrome (interstitial cystitis), irritable bowel syndrome, endometriosis pain, vulvodynia, chronic pelvic pain syndrome (chronic prostatitis). Pelvic pain is often associated with fibromyalgia or complex regional pain syndrome (reflex sympathetic dystrophy). The pathophysiological mechanisms involved in these syndromes are all very similar, suggesting a triggering element, neurogenic inflammation, reflex muscular and autonomic responses, central hypersensitization, emotional reactions and biopsychosocial consequences.

DISCUSSION

The concept of visceral pain is evolving and, in practice, complex pelvic pain can comprise neuropathic components, complex regional pain syndrome components, hypersensitization components, and emotional components closely resembling posttraumatic stress syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

When pain cannot be explained by an organ disease, the pain must be considered to be expressed via this organ. Chronic pelvic and perineal pain can become self-perpetuating and identification of its various mechanisms can allow the proposal of individually tailored treatments.

[Symptomatic approach to chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome]

OBJECTIVE

To review the diagnosis and pathogenesis of chronic prostatitis (CP) and chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CPPS).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A review of the literature was performed by searching the Medline database (National Library of Medicine). Search terms were either medical subject heading (MeSH) keywords (microbiology, pelvic pain, prostatitis) or terms derived from the title or abstract. Search terms were used alone or in combinations by using the "AND" operator. The literature search was conducted from 1990 to the present time.

RESULTS

Chronic bacterial prostatitis is a chronic, recurrent bacterial infection of the prostate, accounting for about 5 to 10% of all cases of chronic prostatitis (CP). CPPS is nonbacterial genitourinary pelvic pain present for at least 3 months, sometimes associated with sexual and voiding disorders. Although the prostate does not appear to be involved in all cases of chronic pelvic pain in men, the term CP usually remains associated with CPPS (CP/CPPS). CP/CPPS has a negative impact on quality of life. The precise pathogenesis of CP/CPPS has not been elucidated, but prostatic infection and inflammation could be involved, not as direct causes, but as initiating factors of a neurological hypersensitization phenomenon. Evaluation of CP/CPPS comprises clinical interview completed by the National Institutes of Health-Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index questionnaire (NIH-CPSI), physical examination, urine culture and uroflowmetry combined with determination of the post-voiding residual volume. The other investigations are optional and are designed to exclude other urological diagnoses. The Meares-Stamey four-glass test should be abandoned in favour of a simplified test comprising urine analysis before and after prostatic massage. However, the indications for this test are limited to patients in whom chronic bacterial prostatitis is suspected or with bacteriuria on urine culture.

CONCLUSION

Chronic bacterial prostatitis represents only about 5 to 10% of all cases of CP. The usual terminology of chronic non-bacterial prostatitis has been replaced by the term CPPS or CP/CPPS in men, in order to situate this disease in a broader context not exclusively related to the prostate. Despite its prevalence and its impact on quality of life and sexuality, CP/CPPS remains poorly known and continues to raise diagnostic problems.

[Symptomatic approach to chronic neuropathic somatic pelvic and perineal pain]

OBJECTIVES

To determine the characteristics of neuropathic pain and the somatic nerve lesions most frequently encountered in the context of chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of the literature devoted to pelvic and perineal neuralgia.

RESULTS

The diagnosis of pelvic and perineal pain related to a somatic nerve lesion is essentially clinical. The topography of the pain and its characteristics (burning, paraesthesia, etc.) can help to link the pain to the neurological territory involved. Complementary investigations are poorly contributive. Two main systems are involved in this region: sacral nerve roots that give rise to the pudendal nerve and the posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh, thoracolumbar nerve roots that give rise to the ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, genitofemoral and obturator nerves. The first system is essentially perineal and the second is essentially anterior inguinoperineal.

DISCUSSION

Pudendal neuralgia is the most common and most disabling form of pelvic pain. It presents as unilateral or bilateral burning pain of the anterior or posterior perineum that is worse on sitting and relieved by standing, not usually associated with night pain. It is related to a ligamentous nerve compression mechanism. Inferior cluneal neuralgia tends to be experienced as ischial and lateroperineal pain, and is sometimes accompanied by pain in a truncated sciatic territory, corresponding to projections of the posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh. This neuralgia can be related to a piriformis syndrome or an ischial lesion. Sacral nerve root lesions do not cause acute pain, but are accompanied by sacral sensory loss and urinary, anorectal or sexual disorders. Pain related to ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric and genitofemoral nerves is generally secondary to surgical trauma and scars. Although these various lesions are sometimes difficult to distinguish from each other, an essential part of management consists of performing a local anesthetic block at the trigger point detected in the scar. Referred pain derived from the spinal cord due to thoracolumbar painful minor intervertebral dysfunction is experienced in the inguinal region, pubis, labium majorum and sometimes the trochanter, and only a complete clinical examination of the thoracolumbar region can demonstrate local signs (posterior facet joint pain at several levels, fibromyalgia).

[Symptomatic approach to musculoskeletal dysfunction and chronic pelvic and perineal pain]

INTRODUCTION

Clinical examination of a patient with chronic pelvic and perineal pain often demonstrates muscle hypertonia or muscle contracture sometimes associated with local tenderness or real muscle trigger points. It is sometimes very difficult to determine whether this muscle pain detected on clinical examination is the cause or a consequence of the pain. The purpose of this article is to review musculoskeletal dysfunction in the context of chronic pelvic and perineal pain.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Review of the literature devoted to musculoskeletal aspects of pelvic and perineal pain.

RESULTS

Definitions of pelvic floor dysfunction, hyperactive pelvic floor, myofascial pain and muscle trigger points, and the concept of fibromyalgia.

CONCLUSION

Musculoskeletal pain is certainly underestimated in the management of chronic pelvic and perineal pain. The pathophysiology of musculoskeletal pain involves disorders of the lumbar, pelvic and femoral equilibrium, myofascial pain characterized by the presence of trigger points for which the pathophysiology remains controversial: a purely muscle disease, reaction to adjacent inflammatory reactions causing hypersensitization, or simply a sign of central hypersensitization in a context of chronic pain syndrome.

[Priapism associated with antipsychotic medications: a series of four patients]

INTRODUCTION

Ischemic (veno-occlusive, low flow) priapism is a painful and persistent penile erection unrelated to sexual desire or stimulation. In some cases, it is an adverse event of antipsychotic medications.

MATERIAL

Between 1st January 2000 and 30th September 2007, four men (range 25/55 years), treated with antipsychotic agents (amisulpride, clozapine, levomepromazine, olanzapine, pipotiazine, risperidone or zuclopenthixol), presented one or several episodes of ischemic priapism. No other etiological factor was diagnosed. The patients were treated with aspiration and irrigation of the corpa cavernosa with intracavernous injection of sympathomimetic drugs followed in one case by a surgical distal cavernoglanular shunt.

DISCUSSION

Many conventional or atypical antipsychotic agents have been reported to cause priapism. Drug-induced priapism comprised of about 30% of the cases and an estimated 50% of them occurred with antipsychotic agents. The mechanism of priapism associated with antipsychotics agents thought to be related to alpha-adrenergic blocking properties. The decision of whether to restart a patient on a specific antipsychotic agent after an episode of priapism is a difficult clinical decision. An agent with low peripheral alpha-adrenergic blocking affinity would be preferred.

CONCLUSION

Ischemic priapism is an urologic emergency. Clinicians should be familiar with this rare but serious adverse event of antipsychotic agents to avoid long-term sequelae including erectile dysfunction.

[Orchi-epididymitis]

The term orchiepididymitis encompasses inflammation of the epididymis and/or testis, i.e. epididymitis, orchitis, and true orchiepididymitis. Epididymitis is defined as inflammation of the epididymis. Young adults are predominantly affected, with a frequency peak between 20 and 40 years of age. The cause is usually an infectious agent, and the main route of access to the epididymis is retrograde propagation through the vas deferens. From puberty to 35 years of age, many cases are sexually transmitted. The main causative agents are Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. In prepubertal children and in adults older than 35 years of age, epididymitis is among the commonplace genitourinary infections usually caused by enterobacteria. A urinary tract abnormality, most notably an obstruction of the distal urinary tract, is often the cause of the infection. Orchitis, a less common condition, is defined as inflammation of the testis. Again, most cases are related to an infection. Dissemination of the organism occurs either via the bloodstream, particularly with viruses (the most classic example being orchitis due to mumps) or by direct spread from a focus in the epididymis (producing true orchiepididymitis). In patients younger than 35 years of age who have urethritis and suspected sexually transmitted disease, tetracyclines are the best agents and can be given intravenously at first if needed. Tetracyclines are effective not only on C. trachomatis but also on N. gonorrhoeae. This last agent also responds to other antimicrobials, such as ceftriaxone. Macrolides and second-generation quinolones are also effective on C. trachomatis. Typically, treatment is given for 3 weeks. Sexual partners should be evaluated and treated. In patients older than 35 years who have positive urine cultures for bacteria, urinary tract symptoms, a prior diagnosis of a urinary tract abnormality, or a history of a recent endourethral procedure, treatment can be given orally provided the symptoms are of moderate intensity. Either extra-strength cotrimoxazole or second-generation quinolones should be used. Patients with severe disease should be admitted for parenteral therapy with an aminoglycoside and a cephalosporin in combination, followed by oral cotrimoxazole or a second-generation quinolone. If needed, the antibiotics should be changed according to antibiotic susceptibility test results.

[Should plasma prolactin assay be routinely performed in the assessment of erectile dysfunction? Report of a series of 445 patients. Review of the literature]

OBJECTIVE

To define the value of plasma prolactin assay in the assessment of erectile insufficiency.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Plasma prolactin assay (radioimmunoassay) was performed in 445 patients presenting with erectile insufficiency (mean age 52.5 years).

RESULTS

9 patients (2%) presented plasma prolactin levels greater than 25 ng/ml and 4 (0.9%) of them had levels higher than 35 ng/ml. Eight of these 9 patients were taking hyperprolactinaemic drugs. The aetiology remained unclear in 1 patient, but the pituitary gland was normal on CT scan.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In the population of men with erectile insufficiency, 2.7% of subjects have plasma prolactin levels greater than 20 or 25 ng/ml. 1.3% have levels greater than 35 or 40 ng/ml and 0.6% present pituitary tumours. In the case of pituitary tumours responsible hyperprolactinaemia and erectile insufficiency: 1) plasma prolactin is greater than 30 ng/ml in 90% of cases and greater than 50 ng/ml in 83% of cases; 2) total plasma testosterone is less than 3 ng/ml in 88% of cases and less than 4 ng/ml in 96% of cases; 3) libido is decreased in 90% of cases.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of hyperprolactinemia and pituitary tumours in the population of men with erectile insufficiency is low. Moreover, certain criteria are suggestive of hyperprolactinemia, especially when it is secondary to a pituitary tumour. Consequently, routine plasma prolactin assay is not justified. This assay should only be performed when libido is impaired, total plasma testosterone is decreased or when the patient presents certain signs such as headache, gynaecomastia or visual disturbances.

[Metastasis of renal adenocarcinoma to the spermatic cord and the epididymis: 2 cases]

Metastases of renal cell carcinoma are exceptional in the spermatic cord and epididymis (17 cases reported in the literature). The authors report two cases of metastases occurring 30 and 44 months after radical nephrectomy, respectively. Both patients are alive without metastases after surgical resection, with a follow-up of 4 and 8 years after the diagnosis of renal cancer, respectively. The mechanism of development, usually retrograde venous spread, and the particular features of these metastatic sites are discussed.

[Percutaneous drainage nephrostomy in patients over 70 years of age. Apropos of 98 nephrostomies in 74 patients]

From 1985 to 1992, 98 ultrasound-guided percutaneous drainage nephrostomies were performed in 74 patients with a mean age of 77 years (range: 70-88 years). The diversion was indicated because of upper urinary tract obstruction (87% of cases), urinary fistula (4%) or secondary displacement of the first PCN (9%). The initial disease was benign in 29 patients (42.5%, including 48% of renal and ureteric stones), malignant in 39 cases (53%, including 79% of pelvic cancers) and not specified in 6 cases (4.5%). PCN was performed successfully in 93% of patients and allowed improvement in renal failure and/or treatment of the initial infectious syndrome in the majority of cases. The following complications were observed: secondary displacement of the drain (13 cases), infection (3 cases), renal subcapsular haematoma (1 case). The outcome of the patients was directly related to the initial disease: 28 of the 29 patients diverted for a benign disease were still alive and the PCN drain was able to be removed in 96% of cases after curative treatment; 95% of the patients diverted for cancer had died within 13 months after PCN. Patients with previously untreated prostatic cancer had the best prognosis, as androgen suppression allowed removal of the PCN without any additional procedure, in some cases. Drainage of the upper urinary tract by percutaneous nephrostomy under local anaesthesia has a limited morbidity and a low failure rate and therefore appears to be a technique of choice, particularly in elderly patients.

[The value of antibiotic prophylaxis in transurethral resection of bladder tumors. Apropos of 61 cases]

In order to define the value of antibiotic prophylaxis, we conducted a prospective, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 61 patients undergoing transurethral resection (TUR) of a bladder lesion suspected to be neoplastic. 32 patients received a single dose of 800 mg of pefloxacin at the time of anaesthetic induction and 29 patients received placebo. All patients had sterile preoperative urine and none had received any antibiotics during the fortnight preceding the operation. 3 patients in the pefloxacin group (9.4%) developed postoperative bacteriuria versus 7 in the placebo group (24.1%) (no statistically significant difference). No patient developed symptomatic urinary tract infection. We conclude that antibiotic prophylaxis is not indicated during TUR for bladder tumours.

[Recent fractures of the distal end of the femur. Apropos of 87 cases (after the end of treatment)]

Anatomopathologic study of fractures of lower end of femur in 87 patients demonstrated the frequency of compound lesions in adults, epiphyseal detachment being the most common finding in children. Therapy used resulted in consolidation within a mean period of 4 months. Anatomic results were satisfactory in 87% of cases, 2 of 3 patients recuperating a knee compatible with a normal active life. Complications were rare. The current therapeutic attitude in adults is resolutely surgical, particularly in case of an intra-articular fracture line. In children, treatment remains orthopedic, except for epiphyseal detachments when minimal fixation allows perfect anatomic reduction and avoids secondary growth disorders.