Changes in hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory responses at high altitude measured using rebreathing methods

Ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia play a vital role in maintaining gas exchange homeostasis, and in adaptation to high-altitude environments. This study investigates the mechanisms underlying sensitization of hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory responses (HVR and HCVR, respectively) in individuals acclimatized to moderate high altitude (3800 m). Thirty-one participants underwent chemoreflex testing using the Duffin modified rebreathing technique. Measures were taken at sea level and after 2 days of acclimatization to high altitude. Ventilatory recruitment thresholds (VRT), HCVR, and HVR were quantified. Acclimatization to high altitude resulted in increased HVR (p<0.001) and HCVR (p<0.001), as expected. We also observed that the decrease in VRT under hypoxic test conditions significantly contributed to the elevated HVR at high altitude since the change in VRT across hyperoxic and hypoxic test conditions was greater at high altitude compared to baseline sea level tests (p=0.043). Pre-VRT ventilation also increased at high altitude (p<0.001), but the change did not differ between oxygen conditions. Taken together, this data suggests that the increase in HVR at high altitude is at least partially driven by a larger decrease in the VRT in hypoxia versus hyperoxia at high altitude compared to sea level. This study highlights the intricacies of respiratory adaptations during acclimatization to moderate high altitude, shedding light on the roles of the VRT, baseline respiratory drive, and two-slope HCVR in this process. These findings contribute to our understanding of how the human respiratory control responds to hypoxic and hypercapnic challenges at high altitude.

Functional EPAS1/HIF2A missense variant is associated with hematocrit in Andean highlanders

Hypoxia-inducible factor pathway genes are linked to adaptation in both human and nonhuman highland species. EPAS1, a notable target of hypoxia adaptation, is associated with relatively lower hemoglobin concentration in Tibetans. We provide evidence for an association between an adaptive EPAS1 variant (rs570553380) and the same phenotype of relatively low hematocrit in Andean highlanders. This Andean-specific missense variant is present at a modest frequency in Andeans and absent in other human populations and vertebrate species except the coelacanth. CRISPR-base-edited human cells with this variant exhibit shifts in hypoxia-regulated gene expression, while metabolomic analyses reveal both genotype and phenotype associations and validation in a lowland population. Although this genocopy of relatively lower hematocrit in Andean highlanders parallels well-replicated findings in Tibetans, it likely involves distinct pathway responses based on a protein-coding versus noncoding variants, respectively. These findings illuminate how unique variants at EPAS1 contribute to the same phenotype in Tibetans and a subset of Andean highlanders despite distinct evolutionary trajectories.

The normal distribution of the hypoxic ventilatory response and methodological impacts: a meta-analysis and computational investigation

The hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR) is the increase in breathing in response to reduced arterial oxygen pressure. Over several decades, studies have revealed substantial population-level differences in the magnitude of the HVR as well as significant inter-individual variation. In particular, low HVRs occur frequently in Andean high-altitude native populations. However, our group conducted hundreds of HVR measures over several years and commonly observed low responses in sea-level populations as well. As a result, we aimed to determine the normal HVR distribution, whether low responses were common, and to what extent variation in study protocols influence these findings. We conducted a comprehensive search of the literature and examined the distributions of HVR values across 78 studies that utilized step-down/steady-state or progressive hypoxia methods in untreated, healthy human subjects. Several studies included multiple datasets across different populations or experimental conditions. In the final analysis, 72 datasets reported mean HVR values and 60 datasets provided raw HVR datasets. Of the 60 datasets reporting raw HVR values, 35 (58.3%) were at least moderately positively skewed (skew > 0.5), and 21 (35%) were significantly positively skewed (skew > 1), indicating that lower HVR values are common. The skewness of HVR distributions does not appear to be an artifact of methodology or the unit with which the HVR is reported. Further analysis demonstrated that the use of step-down hypoxia versus progressive hypoxia methods did not have a significant impact on average HVR values, but that isocapnic protocols produced higher HVRs than poikilocapnic protocols. This work provides a reference for expected HVR values and illustrates substantial inter-individual variation in this key reflex. Finally, the prevalence of low HVRs in the general population provides insight into our understanding of blunted HVRs in high-altitude adapted groups. KEY POINTS: The hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR) plays a crucial role in determining an individual's predisposition to hypoxia-related pathologies. There is notable variability in HVR sensitivity across individuals as well as significant population-level differences. We report that the normal distribution of the HVR is positively skewed, with a significant prevalence of low HVR values amongst the general healthy population. We also find no significant impact of the experimental protocol used to induce hypoxia, although HVR is greater with isocapnic versus poikilocapnic methods. These results provide insight into the normal distribution of the HVR, which could be useful in clinical decisions of diseases related to hypoxaemia. Additionally, the low HVR values found within the general population provide insight into the genetic adaptations found in populations residing in high altitudes.

Health disparities in COVID-19: immune and vascular changes are linked to disease severity and persist in a high-risk population in Riverside County, California

BACKGROUND

Health disparities in underserved communities, such as inadequate healthcare access, impact COVID-19 disease outcomes. These disparities are evident in Hispanic populations nationwide, with disproportionately high infection and mortality rates. Furthermore, infected individuals can develop long COVID with sustained impacts on quality of life. The goal of this study was to identify immune and endothelial factors that are associated with COVID-19 outcomes in Riverside County, a high-risk and predominantly Hispanic community, and investigate the long-term impacts of COVID-19 infection.

METHODS

112 participants in Riverside County, California, were recruited according to the following criteria: healthy control (n = 23), outpatients with moderate infection (outpatient, n = 33), ICU patients with severe infection (hospitalized, n = 33), and individuals recovered from moderate infection (n = 23). Differences in outcomes between Hispanic and non-Hispanic individuals and presence/absence of co-morbidities were evaluated. Circulating immune and vascular biomarkers were measured by ELISA, multiplex analyte assays, and flow cytometry. Follow-up assessments for long COVID, lung health, and immune and vascular changes were conducted after recovery (n = 23) including paired analyses of the same participants.

RESULTS

Compared to uninfected controls, the severe infection group had a higher proportion of Hispanic individuals (n = 23, p = 0.012) than moderate infection (n = 8, p = 0.550). Disease severity was associated with changes in innate monocytes and neutrophils, lymphopenia, disrupted cytokine production (increased IL-8 and IP-10/CXCL10 but reduced IFNλ2/3 and IFNγ), and increased endothelial injury (myoglobin, VCAM-1). In the severe infection group, a machine learning model identified LCN2/NGAL, IL-6, and monocyte activation as parameters associated with fatality while anti-coagulant therapy was associated with survival. Recovery from moderate COVID infection resulted in long-term immune changes including increased monocytes/lymphocytes and decreased neutrophils and endothelial markers. This group had a lower proportion of co-morbidities (n = 8, p = 1.0) but still reported symptoms associated with long COVID despite recovered pulmonary function.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates increased severity of COVID-19 infection in Hispanic individuals of Riverside County, California. Infection resulted in immunological and vascular changes and long COVID symptoms that were sustained for up to 11 months, however, lung volume and airflow resistance was recovered. Given the immune and behavioral impacts of long COVID, the potential for increased susceptibility to infections and decreased quality of life in high-risk populations warrants further investigation.

Preserved peak exercise capacity in Andean highlanders with excessive erythrocytosis both before and after isovolumic hemodilution

In chronic mountain sickness (CMS), increased blood oxygen (O₂)-carrying capacity due to excessive erythrocytosis (EE, [Hb] ≥ 21 g/dL) could be offset, especially during exercise by both impaired cardiac output (Q̇t) and O₂ diffusion limitation in lungs and muscle. We hypothesized that EE results in reduced peak V̇o₂ despite increased blood O₂-carrying capacity, and that isovolumic hemodilution (IVHD) improves exercise capacity. In 14 male residents of Cerro de Pasco, Peru (4,340 m), six with and eight without EE, we measured peak cycle-exercise capacity, V̇o₂, Q̇t, arterial blood gas parameters, and (resting) blood volume. This was repeated for participants with EE after IVHD, reducing hematocrit by 20% (from 67% to 53%). From these data, we quantified the major O₂ transport pathway components (ventilation, pulmonary alveolar-capillary diffusion, Q̇t, and blood-muscle mitochondria diffusion). Participants with EE had similar peak V̇o₂, systemic O₂ delivery, and O₂ extraction as non-EE controls, however, with lower Q̇t and higher arterial [O₂]. After IVHD, peak V̇o₂ was preserved (but not enhanced), with lower O₂ delivery (despite higher Q̇t) balanced by greater O₂ extraction. The considerable variance in exercise capacity across the 14 individuals was explained essentially completely by differences in both pulmonary and muscle O₂ diffusional conductances and not by any differences in ventilation, [Hb], nor Q̇t. In conclusion, EE does not result in lower peak V̇o₂ in Andean males, and IVHD maintains, but does not enhance, exercise capacity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Male Andean highlanders with and without excessive erythrocytosis (EE) have similar peak V̇o₂ at 4,340 m, with higher arterial [O₂] in EE and lower cardiac output (Q̇t), thus maintaining similar O₂ delivery. Peak V̇o₂ in participants with EE was unaffected by isovolumic hemodilution (hematocrit reduced from 67% to 53%), with lower O₂ delivery balanced by slightly increased Q̇t and greater O₂ extraction. Differences in lung and muscle diffusing capacity, and not hematocrit variation, accounted for essentially all interindividual variance in peak V̇o₂.

Time Domains of Hypoxia Responses and -Omics Insights

The ability to respond rapidly to changes in oxygen tension is critical for many forms of life. Challenges to oxygen homeostasis, specifically in the contexts of evolutionary biology and biomedicine, provide important insights into mechanisms of hypoxia adaptation and tolerance. Here we synthesize findings across varying time domains of hypoxia in terms of oxygen delivery, ranging from early animal to modern human evolution and examine the potential impacts of environmental and clinical challenges through emerging multi-omics approaches. We discuss how diverse animal species have adapted to hypoxic environments, how humans vary in their responses to hypoxia (i.e., in the context of high-altitude exposure, cardiopulmonary disease, and sleep apnea), and how findings from each of these fields inform the other and lead to promising new directions in basic and clinical hypoxia research.

Inflammatory gene expression during acute high‐altitude exposure

Abstract

The molecular signalling pathways that regulate inflammation and the response to hypoxia share significant crosstalk and appear to play major roles in high‐altitude acclimatization and adaptation. Several studies demonstrate increases in circulating candidate inflammatory markers during acute high‐altitude exposure, but significant gaps remain in our understanding of how inflammation and immune function change at high altitude and whether these responses contribute to high‐altitude pathologies, such as acute mountain sickness. To address this, we took an unbiased transcriptomic approach, including RNA sequencing and direct digital mRNA detection with NanoString, to identify changes in the inflammatory profile of peripheral blood throughout 3 days of high‐altitude acclimatization in healthy sea‐level residents (n = 15; five women). Several inflammation‐related genes were upregulated on the first day of high‐altitude exposure, including a large increase in HMGB1 (high mobility group box 1), a damage‐associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecule that amplifies immune responses during tissue injury. Differentially expressed genes on the first and third days of acclimatization were enriched for several inflammatory pathways, including nuclear factor‐κB and Toll‐like receptor (TLR) signalling. Indeed, both TLR4 and LY96, which encodes the lipopolysaccharide binding protein (MD‐2), were upregulated at high altitude. Finally, FASLG and SMAD7 were associated with acute mountain sickness scores and peripheral oxygen saturation levels on the first day at high altitude, suggesting a potential role of immune regulation in response to high‐altitude hypoxia. These results indicate that acute high‐altitude exposure upregulates inflammatory signalling pathways and might sensitize the TLR4 signalling pathway to subsequent inflammatory stimuli.

Key points

Inflammation plays a crucial role in the physiological response to hypoxia.

High‐altitude hypoxia exposure causes alterations in the inflammatory profile that might play an adaptive or maladaptive role in acclimatization.

In this study, we characterized changes in the inflammatory profile following acute high‐altitude exposure.

We report upregulation of novel inflammation‐related genes in the first 3 days of high‐altitude exposure, which might play a role in immune system sensitization.

These results provide insight into how hypoxia‐induced inflammation might contribute to high‐altitude pathologies and exacerbate inflammatory responses in critical illnesses associated with hypoxaemia.

Hypoxia and Inflammation: Insights From High-Altitude Physiology

The key regulators of the transcriptional response to hypoxia and inflammation (hypoxia inducible factor, HIF, and nuclear factor-kappa B, NF-κB, respectively) are evolutionarily conserved and share significant crosstalk. Tissues often experience hypoxia and inflammation concurrently at the site of infection or injury due to fluid retention and immune cell recruitment that ultimately reduces the rate of oxygen delivery to tissues. Inflammation can induce activity of HIF-pathway genes, and hypoxia may modulate inflammatory signaling. While it is clear that these molecular pathways function in concert, the physiological consequences of hypoxia-induced inflammation and how hypoxia modulates inflammatory signaling and immune function are not well established. In this review, we summarize known mechanisms of HIF and NF-κB crosstalk and highlight the physiological consequences that can arise from maladaptive hypoxia-induced inflammation. Finally, we discuss what can be learned about adaptive regulation of inflammation under chronic hypoxia by examining adaptive and maladaptive inflammatory phenotypes observed in human populations at high altitude. We aim to provide insight into the time domains of hypoxia-induced inflammation and highlight the importance of hypoxia-induced inflammatory sensitization in immune function, pathologies, and environmental adaptation.

Improvements in sleep-disordered breathing during acclimatization to 3800 m and the impact on cognitive function

Sojourners to high altitude often experience poor sleep quality due to sleep‐disordered breathing. Additionally, multiple aspects of cognitive function are impaired at high altitude. However, the impact of acclimatization on sleep‐disordered breathing and whether poor sleep is a major contributor to cognitive impairments at high altitude remains uncertain. We conducted nocturnal actigraphy and polygraphy, as well as daytime cognitive function tests, in 15 participants (33% women) at sea level and over 3 days of partial acclimatization to high altitude (3800 m). Our goal was to determine if sleep‐disordered breathing improved over time and if sleep‐disordered breathing was associated with cognitive function. The apnea–hypopnea index and oxygen desaturation index increased on night 1 (adj. p = 0.026 and adj. p = 0.026, respectively), but both improved over the subsequent 2 nights. These measures were matched by poorer self‐reported sleep quality on the Stanford Sleepiness Scale and PROMIS questionnaires following 1 night at high altitude (adj. p = 0.027 and adj. p = 0.022, respectively). The reaction time on the psychomotor vigilance task was slower at high altitude and did not improve (SL: 199 ± 27, ALT1: 224 ± 33, ALT2: 216 ± 41, ALT3: 212 ± 27 ms). The reaction times on the balloon analog risk task decreased at high altitude (SL: 474 ± 235, ALT1: 375 ± 159, ALT2: 291 ± 102, ALT3: 267 ± 90 ms), perhaps indicating increased risk‐taking behavior. Finally, multiple cognitive function measures were associated with sleep‐disordered breathing and measures of subjective sleep quality, rather than low daytime arterial oxygen saturation. These data indicate that sleep‐disordered breathing at moderately high altitude improves with partial acclimatization and that some aspects of cognitive performance in unacclimatized sojourners may be impacted by poor sleep rather than hypoxemia alone.

Adaptive Potential of the Heme Oxygenase/Carbon Monoxide Pathway During Hypoxia

Heme oxygenase (HO) enzymes catalyze heme into biliverdin, releasing carbon monoxide (CO) and iron into circulation. These byproducts of heme degradation can have potent cytoprotective effects in the face of stressors such as hypoxia and ischemia-reperfusion events. The potential for exogenous use of CO as a therapeutic agent has received increasing attention throughout the past few decades. Further, HO and CO are noted as putatively adaptive in diving mammals and certain high-altitude human populations that are frequently exposed to hypoxia and/or ischemia-reperfusion events, suggesting that HO and endogenous CO afford an evolutionary advantage for hypoxia tolerance and are critical in cell survival and injury avoidance. Our goal is to describe the importance of examining HO and CO in several systems, the physiological links, and the genetic factors that underlie variation in the HO/CO pathway. Finally, we emphasize the ways in which evolutionary perspectives may enhance our understanding of the HO/CO pathway in the context of diverse clinical settings.

Relationships Between Chemoreflex Responses, Sleep Quality, and Hematocrit in Andean Men and Women

Andean highlanders are challenged by chronic hypoxia and many exhibit elevated hematocrit (Hct) and blunted ventilation compared to other high-altitude populations. While many Andeans develop Chronic Mountain Sickness (CMS) and excessive erythrocytosis, Hct varies markedly within Andean men and women and may be driven by individual differences in ventilatory control and/or sleep events which exacerbate hypoxemia. To test this hypothesis, we quantified relationships between resting ventilation and ventilatory chemoreflexes, sleep desaturation, breathing disturbance, and Hct in Andean men and women. Ventilatory measures were made in 109 individuals (n = 63 men; n = 46 women), and sleep measures in 45 of these participants (n = 22 men; n = 23 women). In both men and women, high Hct was associated with low daytime SpO₂ (p < 0.001 and p < 0.002, respectively) and decreased sleep SpO₂ (mean, nadir, and time <80%; all p < 0.02). In men, high Hct was also associated with increased end-tidal P_CO2 (p < 0.009). While ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia did not predict Hct, decreased hypoxic ventilatory responses were associated with lower daytime SpO₂ in men (p < 0.01) and women (p < 0.009) and with lower nadir sleep SpO₂ in women (p < 0.02). Decreased ventilatory responses to CO₂ were associated with more time below 80% SpO₂ during sleep in men (p < 0.05). The obstructive apnea index and apnea-hypopnea index also predicted Hct and CMS scores in men after accounting for age, BMI, and SpO₂ during sleep. Finally, heart rate response to hypoxia was lower in men with higher Hct (p < 0.0001). These data support the idea that hypoventilation and decreased ventilatory sensitivity to hypoxia are associated with decreased day time and nighttime SpO₂ levels that may exacerbate the stimulus for erythropoiesis in Andean men and women. However, interventional and longitudinal studies are required to establish the causal relationships between these associations.

Cognitive function and mood at high altitude following acclimatization and use of supplemental oxygen and adaptive servoventilation sleep treatments

Impairments in cognitive function, mood, and sleep quality occur following ascent to high altitude. Low oxygen (hypoxia) and poor sleep quality are both linked to impaired cognitive performance, but their independent contributions at high altitude remain unknown. Adaptive servoventilation (ASV) improves sleep quality by stabilizing breathing and preventing central apneas without supplemental oxygen. We compared the efficacy of ASV and supplemental oxygen sleep treatments for improving daytime cognitive function and mood in high-altitude visitors (N = 18) during acclimatization to 3,800 m. Each night, subjects were randomly provided with ASV, supplemental oxygen (SpO2 > 95%), or no treatment. Each morning subjects completed a series of cognitive function tests and questionnaires to assess mood and multiple aspects of cognitive performance. We found that both ASV and supplemental oxygen (O2) improved daytime feelings of confusion (ASV: p < 0.01; O2: p < 0.05) and fatigue (ASV: p < 0.01; O2: p < 0.01) but did not improve other measures of cognitive performance at high altitude. However, performance improved on the trail making tests (TMT) A and B (p < 0.001), the balloon analog risk test (p < 0.0001), and the psychomotor vigilance test (p < 0.01) over the course of three days at altitude after controlling for effects of sleep treatments. Compared to sea level, subjects reported higher levels of confusion (p < 0.01) and performed worse on the TMT A (p < 0.05) and the emotion recognition test (p < 0.05) on nights when they received no treatment at high altitude. These results suggest that stabilizing breathing (ASV) or increasing oxygenation (supplemental oxygen) during sleep can reduce feelings of fatigue and confusion, but that daytime hypoxia may play a larger role in other cognitive impairments reported at high altitude. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that some aspects of cognition (executive control, risk inhibition, sustained attention) improve with acclimatization.

Genetic variants at the EGLN1 locus associated with high-altitude adaptation in Tibetans are absent or found at low frequency in highland Andeans

EGLN1 encodes the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) pathway prolyl hydroxylase 2 (PHD2) that serves as an oxygen-sensitive regulator of HIF activity. The EGLN1 locus exhibits a signature of positive selection in Tibetan and Andean populations and is associated with hemoglobin concentration in Tibetans. Recent reports provide evidence for functional roles of protein-coding variants within the first exon of EGLN1 (rs186996510, rs12097901) that are linked to an adaptive signal in Tibetans, yet whether these same variants are present and contribute to adaptation in Andean highlanders is unknown. We determined the frequencies of these adaptive Tibetan alleles in Quechua Andeans resident at high altitude (4,350 m) in addition to individuals of Nepali ancestry resident at sea level. The rs186996510 C (minor) allele previously found at high frequency in Tibetans is absent in Andean (G: 100%) and rare among Nepali (C: 11.8%, G: 88.2%) cohorts. The minor G allele of rs12097901 is found at similarly low frequencies in Andeans (G: 12.7%, C: 87.3%) and Nepalis (G: 23.5%, C: 76.5%) compared to Tibetans. These results suggest that adaptation involving EGLN1 in Andeans involves different mechanisms than those described in Tibetans. The precise Andean adaptive variants remain to be determined.

Adaptive Servoventilation as Treatment for Central Sleep Apnea Due to High-Altitude Periodic Breathing in Nonacclimatized Healthy Individuals

Orr, Jeremy E., Erica C. Heinrich, Matea Djokic, Dillon Gilbertson, Pamela N. Deyoung, Cecilia Anza-Ramirez, Francisco C. Villafuerte, Frank L. Powell, Atul Malhotra, and Tatum Simonson. Adaptive servoventilation as treatment for central sleep apnea due to high-altitude periodic breathing in nonacclimatized healthy individuals. High Alt Med Biol. 19:178-184, 2018.

AIMS

Central sleep apnea (CSA) is common at high altitude, leading to desaturation and sleep disruption. We hypothesized that noninvasive ventilation using adaptive servoventilation (ASV) would be effective at stabilizing CSA at altitude. Supplemental oxygen was evaluated for comparison.

METHODS

Healthy subjects were brought from sea level to 3800 m and underwent polysomnography on three consecutive nights. Subjects underwent each condition-No treatment, ASV, and supplemental oxygen-in random order. The primary outcome was the effect of ASV on oxygen desaturation index (ODI). Secondary outcomes included oxygen saturation, arousals, symptoms, and comparison to supplemental oxygen.

RESULTS

Eighteen subjects underwent at least two treatment conditions. There was a significant difference in ODI across the three treatments. There was no statistical difference in ODI between no treatment and ASV (17.1 ± 4.2 vs. 10.7 ± 2.9 events/hour; p > 0.17) and no difference in saturation or arousal index. Compared with no treatment, oxygen improved the ODI (16.5 ± 4.5 events/hour vs. 0.5 ± 0.2 events/hour; p < 0.003), in addition to saturation and arousal index.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that ASV was not clearly efficacious at controlling CSA in persons traveling to 3800 m, whereas supplemental oxygen resolved CSA. Adjustment in the ASV algorithm may improve efficacy. ASV may have utility in acclimatized persons or at more modest altitudes.

Aerobic function in mitochondria persists beyond death by heat stress in insects

The critical thermal maximum (CT_max) of insects can be determined using flow-through thermolimit respirometry. It has been demonstrated that respiratory patterns cease and insects do not recover once the CT_max temperature has been reached. However, if high temperatures are maintained following the CT_max, researchers have observed a curious phenomenon whereby the insect body releases a large burst of carbon dioxide at a rate and magnitude that often exceed that of the live insect. This carbon dioxide release has been termed the post-mortal peak (PMP). We demonstrate here that the PMP is observed only at high temperatures, is oxygen-dependent, is prevented by cyanide exposure, and is associated with concomitant consumption of oxygen. We conclude that the PMP derives from highly active, aerobic metabolism in the mitochondria. The insect tracheal system contains air-filled tubes that reach deep into the tissues and allow mitochondria access to oxygen even upon organismal death. This unique condition permits the investigation of mitochondrial function during thermal failure in a manner that cannot be achieved using vertebrate organisms or in vitro preparations.

Hypotheses regarding the discontinuous gas exchange cycle (DGC) of insects

The evolutionary origin of the insect respiratory pattern referred to as the discontinuous gas exchange cycle (DGC) has been a topic of extensive discussion among insect physiologists for at least 50 years. This pattern has often been thought to reduce respiratory water loss (RWL). However, because this pattern does not consistently conserve water among all taxa, other hypotheses have been proposed to try and explain the significance of the DGC. In this review we briefly describe the different hypotheses postulated to date. We conclude that the DGC is primarily a respiratory pattern deriving from the simultaneous regulation of O₂ and CO₂. It may nonetheless have additional adaptive functions in insects.

Coordinated ventilation and spiracle activity produce unidirectional airflow in the hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa

Insects exchange respiratory gases via an extensive network of tracheal vessels that open to the surface of the body through spiracular valves. Although gas exchange is known to increase with the opening of these spiracles, it is not clear how this event relates to gas flow through the tracheal system. We examined the relationship between respiratory airflow and spiracle activity in a ventilating insect, the hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa, to better understand the complexity of insect respiratory function. Using simultaneous video recordings of multiple spiracular valves, we found that abdominal spiracles open and close in unison during periods of ventilation. Additionally, independent recordings of CO2 release from the abdominal and thoracic regions and observations of hyperoxic tracer gas movement indicate that air is drawn into the thoracic spiracles and expelled from the abdominal spiracles. Our video recordings suggest that this unidirectional flow is driven by abdominal contractions that occur when the abdominal spiracles open. The spiracles then close as the abdomen relaxes and fills with air from the thorax. Therefore, the respiratory system of the hissing cockroach functions as a unidirectional pump through the coordinated action of the spiracles and abdominal musculature. This mechanism may be employed by a broad diversity of large insects that respire by active ventilation.

The effect of developmental stage on the sensitivity of cell and body size to hypoxia in Drosophila melanogaster

Animals reared in hypoxic environments frequently exhibit smaller body sizes than when reared under normal atmospheric oxygen concentrations. The mechanisms responsible for this widely documented pattern of body size plasticity are poorly known. We studied the ontogeny of responses of Drosophila melanogaster adult body size to hypoxic exposure. We hypothesized that there may be critical oxygen-sensitive periods during D. melanogaster development that are primarily responsive to body size regulation. Instead, our results showed that exposure to hypoxia (an atmospheric partial pressure of oxygen of 10 kPa) during any developmental stage (embryo, larvae and pupae) leads to smaller adult size. However, short hypoxic exposures during the late larval and early pupal stages had the greatest effects on adult size. We then investigated whether the observed reductions in size induced by hypoxia at various developmental stages were the result of a decrease in cell size or cell number. Abdominal epithelial cells of flies reared continuously in hypoxia were smaller in mean diameter and were size-limited compared with cells of flies reared in normoxia. Flies reared in hypoxia during the embryonic, larval or pupal stage, or during their entire development, had smaller wing areas than flies reared in normoxia. Flies reared during the pupal stage, or throughout development in hypoxia had smaller wing cells, even after controlling for the effect of wing size. These results suggest that hypoxia effects on the body size of D. melanogaster probably occur by multiple mechanisms operating at various developmental stages.