Casein kinase 2 phosphorylates and induces the SALL2 tumor suppressor degradation in colon cancer cells

Spalt-like proteins are Zinc finger transcription factors from Caenorhabditis elegans to vertebrates, with critical roles in development. In vertebrates, four paralogues have been identified (SALL1-4), and SALL2 is the family's most dissimilar member. SALL2 is required during brain and eye development. It is downregulated in cancer and acts as a tumor suppressor, promoting cell cycle arrest and cell death. Despite its critical functions, information about SALL2 regulation is scarce. Public data indicate that SALL2 is ubiquitinated and phosphorylated in several residues along the protein, but the mechanisms, biological consequences, and enzymes responsible for these modifications remain unknown. Bioinformatic analyses identified several putative phosphorylation sites for Casein Kinase II (CK2) located within a highly conserved C-terminal PEST degradation motif of SALL2. CK2 is a serine/threonine kinase that promotes cell proliferation and survival and is often hyperactivated in cancer. We demonstrated that CK2 phosphorylates SALL2 residues S763, T778, S802, and S806 and promotes SALL2 degradation by the proteasome. Accordingly, pharmacological inhibition of CK2 with Silmitasertib (CX-4945) restored endogenous SALL2 protein levels in SALL2-deficient breast MDA-MB-231, lung H1299, and colon SW480 cancer cells. Silmitasertib induced a methuosis-like phenotype and cell death in SW480 cells. However, the phenotype was significantly attenuated in CRISPr/Cas9-mediated SALL2 knockout SW480 cells. Similarly, Sall2-deficient tumor organoids were more resistant to Silmitasertib-induced cell death, confirming that SALL2 sensitizes cancer cells to CK2 inhibition. We identified a novel CK2-dependent mechanism for SALL2 regulation and provided new insights into the interplay between these two proteins and their role in cell survival and proliferation.

Streamlined computational pipeline for genetic background characterization of genetically engineered mice based on next generation sequencing data

BACKGROUND

Genetically engineered mice (GEM) are essential tools for understanding gene function and disease modeling. Historically, gene targeting was first done in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) derived from the 129 family of inbred strains, leading to a mixed background or congenic mice when crossed with C57BL/6 mice. Depending on the number of backcrosses and breeding strategies, genomic segments from 129-derived ESCs can be introgressed into the C57BL/6 genome, establishing a unique genetic makeup that needs characterization in order to obtain valid conclusions from experiments using GEM lines. Currently, SNP genotyping is used to detect the extent of 129-derived ESC genome introgression into C57BL/6 recipients; however, it fails to detect novel/rare variants.

RESULTS

Here, we present a computational pipeline implemented in the Galaxy platform and in BASH/R script to determine genetic introgression of GEM using next generation sequencing data (NGS), such as whole genome sequencing (WGS), whole exome sequencing (WES) and RNA-Seq. The pipeline includes strategies to uncover variants linked to a targeted locus, genome-wide variant visualization, and the identification of potential modifier genes. Although these methods apply to congenic mice, they can also be used to describe variants fixed by genetic drift. As a proof of principle, we analyzed publicly available RNA-Seq data from five congenic knockout (KO) lines and our own RNA-Seq data from the Sall2 KO line. Additionally, we performed target validation using several genetics approaches.

CONCLUSIONS

We revealed the impact of the 129-derived ESC genome introgression on gene expression, predicted potential modifier genes, and identified potential phenotypic interference in KO lines. Our results demonstrate that our new approach is an effective method to determine genetic introgression of GEM.