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Kashiri N, Abate A, Abram SJ, Albu-Schaffer A, Clary PJ, Daley M, Faraji S, Furnemont R, Garabini M, Geyer H, Grabowski AM, Hurst J, Malzahn J, Mathijssen G, Remy D, Roozing W, Shahbazi M, Simha SN, Song JB, Smit-Anseeuw N, Stramigioli S, Vanderborght B, Yesilevskiy Y, Tsagarakis N. An Overview on Principles for Energy Efficient Robot Locomotion. Front Robot AI 2018; 5:129. [PMID: 33501007 PMCID: PMC7805619 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2018.00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite enhancements in the development of robotic systems, the energy economy of today's robots lags far behind that of biological systems. This is in particular critical for untethered legged robot locomotion. To elucidate the current stage of energy efficiency in legged robotic systems, this paper provides an overview on recent advancements in development of such platforms. The covered different perspectives include actuation, leg structure, control and locomotion principles. We review various robotic actuators exploiting compliance in series and in parallel with the drive-train to permit energy recycling during locomotion. We discuss the importance of limb segmentation under efficiency aspects and with respect to design, dynamics analysis and control of legged robots. This paper also reviews a number of control approaches allowing for energy efficient locomotion of robots by exploiting the natural dynamics of the system, and by utilizing optimal control approaches targeting locomotion expenditure. To this end, a set of locomotion principles elaborating on models for energetics, dynamics, and of the systems is studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navvab Kashiri
- Humanoids and Human Centred Mechatronics Lab, Department of Advanced Robotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Andy Abate
- Dynamic Robotics Laboratory, School of MIME, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Sabrina J. Abram
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Alin Albu-Schaffer
- Robotics and Mechatronics Center, German Aerospace Center, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
| | - Patrick J. Clary
- Dynamic Robotics Laboratory, School of MIME, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Monica Daley
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Salman Faraji
- Biorobotics Laboratory, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Furnemont
- Robotics and Multibody Mechanics Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Manolo Garabini
- Centro di Ricerca “Enrico Piaggio”, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Hartmut Geyer
- Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Alena M. Grabowski
- Applied Biomechanics Lab, Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Jonathan Hurst
- Dynamic Robotics Laboratory, School of MIME, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Jorn Malzahn
- Humanoids and Human Centred Mechatronics Lab, Department of Advanced Robotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Glenn Mathijssen
- Robotics and Multibody Mechanics Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, Brussels, Belgium
| | - David Remy
- Robotics and Motion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Wesley Roozing
- Humanoids and Human Centred Mechatronics Lab, Department of Advanced Robotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Mohammad Shahbazi
- Humanoids and Human Centred Mechatronics Lab, Department of Advanced Robotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Surabhi N. Simha
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Jae-Bok Song
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Nils Smit-Anseeuw
- Robotics and Motion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | | | - Bram Vanderborght
- Robotics and Multibody Mechanics Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yevgeniy Yesilevskiy
- Robotics and Motion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Nikos Tsagarakis
- Humanoids and Human Centred Mechatronics Lab, Department of Advanced Robotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
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Mathijssen G, Furnémont R, Verstraten T, Espinoza C, Beckers S, Lefeber D, Vanderborght B. Study on electric energy consumed in intermittent series-parallel elastic actuators (iSPEA). Bioinspir Biomim 2017; 12:036008. [PMID: 28287398 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aa664d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
On compliant actuators, intermittent series-parallel elastic actuators (iSPEA) can reduce motor load by variable load cancellation through recruitment of parallel springs by a single motor. However, the potential to reduce electric energy consumed, compared to a traditional stiff driven joint has not yet been evaluated thoroughly both in simulations and experiments. We have developed a 1DOF MACCEPA-based iSPEA test bench with a self-closing intermittent mechanism. An iSPEA driven warehouse robot is used as a case study in simulation. A method to compare iSPEA and traditional actuators is proposed. This paper shows a match between our simulations and experimental results regarding electric energy consumed. Although the chosen gear ratio shows to be detrimental for both the stiff actuator and the iSPEA, the electric energy consumed by the iSPEA is about 25% to 67% of the stiff actuator, for a warehouse robot placing 3 objects on a shelf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn Mathijssen
- Interdepartmental Research Centre E. Piaggio, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pisa, Italy. http://centropiaggio.unipi.it
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Furnémont R, Mathijssen G, Verstraten T, Lefeber D, Vanderborght B. Bi-directional series-parallel elastic actuator and overlap of the actuation layers. Bioinspir Biomim 2016; 11:016005. [PMID: 26813145 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/11/1/016005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Several robotics applications require high torque-to-weight ratio and energy efficient actuators. Progress in that direction was made by introducing compliant elements into the actuation. A large variety of actuators were developed such as series elastic actuators (SEAs), variable stiffness actuators and parallel elastic actuators (PEAs). SEAs can reduce the peak power while PEAs can reduce the torque requirement on the motor. Nonetheless, these actuators still cannot meet performances close to humans. To combine both advantages, the series parallel elastic actuator (SPEA) was developed. The principle is inspired from biological muscles. Muscles are composed of motor units, placed in parallel, which are variably recruited as the required effort increases. This biological principle is exploited in the SPEA, where springs (layers), placed in parallel, can be recruited one by one. This recruitment is performed by an intermittent mechanism. This paper presents the development of a SPEA using the MACCEPA principle with a self-closing mechanism. This actuator can deliver a bi-directional output torque, variable stiffness and reduced friction. The load on the motor can also be reduced, leading to a lower power consumption. The variable recruitment of the parallel springs can also be tuned in order to further decrease the consumption of the actuator for a given task. First, an explanation of the concept and a brief description of the prior work done will be given. Next, the design and the model of one of the layers will be presented. The working principle of the full actuator will then be given. At the end of this paper, experiments showing the electric consumption of the actuator will display the advantage of the SPEA over an equivalent stiff actuator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Furnémont
- Robotics and Multibody Mechanics (R&MM), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
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Terryn S, Mathijssen G, Brancart J, Lefeber D, Assche GV, Vanderborght B. Development of a self-healing soft pneumatic actuator: a first concept. Bioinspir Biomim 2015; 10:046007. [PMID: 26151944 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/10/4/046007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Inspired by the intrinsic softness and the corresponding embodied intelligence principles, soft pneumatic actuators (SPA) have been developed, which ensure safe interaction in unstructured, unknown environments. Due to their intrinsic softness, these actuators have the ability to resist large mechanical impacts. However, the soft materials used in these structures are in general susceptible to damage caused by sharp objects found in the unstructured environments. This paper proposes to integrate a self-healing (SH-) mechanism in SPAs, such that cuts, tears and perforations in the actuator can be self-healed. Diels-Alder (DA-) polymers, covalent polymer network systems based on the thermoreversible DA-reaction, were selected and their mechanical, as well as SH-properties, are described. To evaluate the feasibility of developing an SPA constructed out of SH-material, a single cell prototype, a SH-soft pneumatic cell (SH-SPC), was constructed entirely out of DA-polymers. Exploiting the SH-property of the DA-polymers, a completely new shaping process is presented in this paper, referred to as 'shaping through folding and self-healing'. 3D polygon structures, like the cubic SH-SPC, can be constructed by folding SH-polymer sheet. The sides of the structures can be sealed and made airtight using a SH-procedure at relatively low temperatures (<90 °C). Both the (thermo) mechanical and SH-properties of the SH-SPC prototype were experimentally validated and showed excellent performances. Macroscopic incisions in the prototype were completely healed using a SH-procedure (<70 °C). Starting from this single-cell prototype, it is straight-forward to develop a multi-cell prototype, the first SPA ever built completely out of SH-polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seppe Terryn
- Robotics and Multibody Mechanics (R&MM), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
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