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Rytter H, Roger K, Chhuon C, Ding X, Coureuil M, Jamet A, Henry T, Guerrera IC, Charbit A. Dual proteomics of infected macrophages reveal bacterial and host players involved in the Francisella intracellular life cycle and cell to cell dissemination by merocytophagy. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7797. [PMID: 38565565 PMCID: PMC10987565 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58261-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens adapt and replicate within host cells, while host cells develop mechanisms to eliminate them. Using a dual proteomic approach, we characterized the intra-macrophage proteome of the facultative intracellular pathogen, Francisella novicida. More than 900 Francisella proteins were identified in infected macrophages after a 10-h infection. Biotin biosynthesis-related proteins were upregulated, emphasizing the role of biotin-associated genes in Francisella replication. Conversely, proteins encoded by the Francisella pathogenicity island (FPI) were downregulated, supporting the importance of the F. tularensis Type VI Secretion System for vacuole escape, not cytosolic replication. In the host cell, over 300 proteins showed differential expression among the 6200 identified during infection. The most upregulated host protein was cis-aconitate decarboxylase IRG1, known for itaconate production with antimicrobial properties in Francisella. Surprisingly, disrupting IRG1 expression did not impact Francisella's intracellular life cycle, suggesting redundancy with other immune proteins or inclusion in larger complexes. Over-representation analysis highlighted cell-cell contact and actin polymerization in macrophage deregulated proteins. Using flow cytometry and live cell imaging, we demonstrated that merocytophagy involves diverse cell-to-cell contacts and actin polymerization-dependent processes. These findings lay the groundwork for further exploration of merocytophagy and its molecular mechanisms in future research.Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD035145.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héloïse Rytter
- Université Paris CitéINSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 156-160 rue de Vaugirard, 75015, Paris, France
- INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Team 7: Pathogénie des Infections Systémiques, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Kevin Roger
- INSERM US24/CNRS UAR3633, Proteomic Platform Necker, UniversitéParis-Cité, Federative Research Structure Necker, Paris, France
| | - Cerina Chhuon
- INSERM US24/CNRS UAR3633, Proteomic Platform Necker, UniversitéParis-Cité, Federative Research Structure Necker, Paris, France
| | - Xiongqi Ding
- Université Paris CitéINSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 156-160 rue de Vaugirard, 75015, Paris, France
- INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Team 7: Pathogénie des Infections Systémiques, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Coureuil
- Université Paris CitéINSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 156-160 rue de Vaugirard, 75015, Paris, France
- INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Team 7: Pathogénie des Infections Systémiques, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Anne Jamet
- Université Paris CitéINSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 156-160 rue de Vaugirard, 75015, Paris, France
- INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Team 7: Pathogénie des Infections Systémiques, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Henry
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69007, Lyon, France
| | - Ida Chiara Guerrera
- INSERM US24/CNRS UAR3633, Proteomic Platform Necker, UniversitéParis-Cité, Federative Research Structure Necker, Paris, France.
| | - Alain Charbit
- Université Paris CitéINSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 156-160 rue de Vaugirard, 75015, Paris, France.
- INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Team 7: Pathogénie des Infections Systémiques, 75015, Paris, France.
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2
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Ding X, Robbe-Masselot C, Fu X, Léonard R, Marsac B, Dauriat CJG, Lepissier A, Rytter H, Ramond E, Dupuis M, Euphrasie D, Dubail I, Schimmich C, Qin X, Parraga J, Leite-de-Moraes M, Ferroni A, Chassaing B, Sermet-Gaudelus I, Charbit A, Coureuil M, Jamet A. Airway environment drives the selection of quorum sensing mutants and promote Staphylococcus aureus chronic lifestyle. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8135. [PMID: 38065959 PMCID: PMC10709412 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43863-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a predominant cause of chronic lung infections. While the airway environment is rich in highly sialylated mucins, the interaction of S. aureus with sialic acid is poorly characterized. Using S. aureus USA300 as well as clinical isolates, we demonstrate that quorum-sensing dysfunction, a hallmark of S. aureus adaptation, correlates with a greater ability to consume free sialic acid, providing a growth advantage in an air-liquid interface model and in vivo. Furthermore, RNA-seq experiment reveals that free sialic acid triggers transcriptional reprogramming promoting S. aureus chronic lifestyle. To support the clinical relevance of our results, we show the co-occurrence of S. aureus, sialidase-producing microbiota and free sialic acid in the airway of patients with cystic fibrosis. Our findings suggest a dual role for sialic acid in S. aureus airway infection, triggering virulence reprogramming and driving S. aureus adaptive strategies through the selection of quorum-sensing dysfunctional strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiongqi Ding
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Robbe-Masselot
- Université Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Xiali Fu
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Renaud Léonard
- Université Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Benjamin Marsac
- Université Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576 - UGSF - Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, F-59000, Lille, France
| | - Charlene J G Dauriat
- INSERM U1016, CNRS UMR8104, Université Paris Cité, Team «Mucosal Microbiota in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases», F75014, Paris, France
| | - Agathe Lepissier
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Héloïse Rytter
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Elodie Ramond
- Genoscope, UMR8030, Laboratory of Systems & Synthetic Biology (LISSB), Xenome team, F91057, Evry, France
| | - Marion Dupuis
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Daniel Euphrasie
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Iharilalao Dubail
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Cécile Schimmich
- Anses, Laboratory of Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and epidemiology of equine diseases (PhEED), RD 675, F14430, Goustranville, France
| | - Xiaoquan Qin
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Jessica Parraga
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, AP-HP Centre Université de Paris Cité, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Maria Leite-de-Moraes
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Agnes Ferroni
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, AP-HP Centre Université de Paris Cité, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Benoit Chassaing
- INSERM U1016, CNRS UMR8104, Université Paris Cité, Team «Mucosal Microbiota in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases», F75014, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Sermet-Gaudelus
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Alain Charbit
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Coureuil
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France.
| | - Anne Jamet
- Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR-S1151, CNRS UMR-S8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, F75015, Paris, France.
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, AP-HP Centre Université de Paris Cité, F75015, Paris, France.
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Rytter H, Combet E, Chassaing B. Probiotic: is diet part of the efficacy equation? Gut Microbes 2023; 15:2222438. [PMID: 37381176 PMCID: PMC10312016 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2023.2222438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Discovered at the beginning of the 20th century by Nobel laureate Élie Metchnikoff, probiotics have more recently emerged as a potential noninvasive therapeutic approach for the treatment of various chronic diseases. However, recent population-based clinical studies suggest that probiotics are often ineffective and may even exhibit potential deleterious effects. Hence, a deeper molecular understanding of strain-specific beneficial effects, together with the identification of endogenous/exogenous factors modulating probiotic efficacy, is needed. The lack of consistency in probiotic efficacy, together with the observation that numerous preclinical findings on probiotics are not translating once applied to humans through clinical trials, suggests a central role for environmental factors, such as dietary patterns, in probiotic efficacy. Two recent studies have been instrumental in filling this knowledge gap, defining the role played by diet in probiotic efficacy on metabolic deregulations in both mouse models and humans .
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Affiliation(s)
- Héloïse Rytter
- INSERM U1016, Team “Mucosal Microbiota in Chronic Inflammatory diseases”, CNRS, UMR10 8104, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Emilie Combet
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, college of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Benoit Chassaing
- INSERM U1016, Team “Mucosal Microbiota in Chronic Inflammatory diseases”, CNRS, UMR10 8104, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
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Rytter H, Jamet A, Coureuil M, Charbit A, Ramond E. Which Current and Novel Diagnostic Avenues for Bacterial Respiratory Diseases? Front Microbiol 2020; 11:616971. [PMID: 33362754 PMCID: PMC7758241 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.616971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial acute pneumonia is responsible for an extremely large burden of death worldwide and diagnosis is paramount in the management of patients. While multidrug-resistant bacteria is one of the biggest health threats in the coming decades, clinicians urgently need access to novel diagnostic technologies. In this review, we will first present the already existing and largely used techniques that allow identifying pathogen-associated pneumonia. Then, we will discuss the latest and most promising technological advances that are based on connected technologies (artificial intelligence-based and Omics-based) or rapid tests, to improve the management of lung infections caused by pathogenic bacteria. We also aim to highlight the mutual benefits of fundamental and clinical studies for a better understanding of lung infections and their more efficient diagnostic management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héloïse Rytter
- Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM U1151, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7, Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 8253, Paris, France
| | - Anne Jamet
- Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM U1151, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7, Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 8253, Paris, France.,Department of Clinical Microbiology, Necker Enfants-Malades Hospital, AP-HP, Centre Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Coureuil
- Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM U1151, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7, Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 8253, Paris, France
| | - Alain Charbit
- Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM U1151, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7, Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 8253, Paris, France
| | - Elodie Ramond
- Université de Paris, Paris, France.,INSERM U1151, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7, Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris, France.,CNRS UMR 8253, Paris, France
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5
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Ziveri J, Chhuon C, Jamet A, Rytter H, Prigent G, Tros F, Barel M, Coureuil M, Lays C, Henry T, Keep NH, Guerrera IC, Charbit A. Critical Role of a Sheath Phosphorylation Site On the Assembly and Function of an Atypical Type VI Secretion System. Mol Cell Proteomics 2019; 18:2418-2432. [PMID: 31578219 PMCID: PMC6885697 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra119.001532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial pathogen Francisella tularensis possesses a noncanonical type VI secretion system (T6SS) that is required for phagosomal escape in infected macrophages. KCl stimulation has been previously used to trigger assembly and secretion of the T6SS in culture. By differential proteomics, we found here that the amounts of the T6SS proteins remained unchanged upon KCl stimulation, suggesting involvement of post-translational modifications in T6SS assembly. A phosphoproteomic analysis indeed identified a unique phosphorylation site on IglB, a key component of the T6SS sheath. Substitutions of Y139 with alanine or phosphomimetics prevented T6SS formation and abolished phagosomal escape whereas substitution with phenylalanine delayed but did not abolish phagosomal escape in J774-1 macrophages. Altogether our data demonstrated that the Y139 site of IglB plays a critical role in T6SS biogenesis, suggesting that sheath phosphorylation could participate to T6SS dynamics.Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD013619; and on MS-Viewer, key lkaqkllxwx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Ziveri
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Cerina Chhuon
- Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Anne Jamet
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Héloïse Rytter
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Guénolé Prigent
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Fabiola Tros
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Monique Barel
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Mathieu Coureuil
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France
| | - Claire Lays
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon, Inserm, U1111, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Labex ECOFECT, Eco-evolutionary dynamics of infectious diseases, F-69007, LYON, France
| | - Thomas Henry
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Lyon, Inserm, U1111, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Labex ECOFECT, Eco-evolutionary dynamics of infectious diseases, F-69007, LYON, France
| | - Nicholas H Keep
- Crystallography, Institute for Structural and Molecular Biology, Department of Biological Sciences Birkbeck, University of London, United Kingdom
| | - Ida Chiara Guerrera
- Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France.
| | - Alain Charbit
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U1151-CNRS UMR 8253, Institut Necker-Enfants Malades. Team 7: Pathogenesis of Systemic Infections, Paris 75015, France; Plateforme protéomique 3P5-Necker, Universit[c33c]zpi;● Paris Descartes - Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris 75015, France.
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García-Weber D, Dangeard AS, Cornil J, Thai L, Rytter H, Zamyatina A, Mulard LA, Arrieumerlou C. ADP-heptose is a newly identified pathogen-associated molecular pattern of Shigella flexneri. EMBO Rep 2018; 19:embr.201846943. [PMID: 30455202 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201846943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
During an infection, the detection of pathogens is mediated through the interactions between pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and pathogen recognition receptors. β-Heptose 1,7-bisphosphate (βHBP), an intermediate of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biosynthesis pathway, was recently identified as a bacterial PAMP. It was reported that βHBP sensing leads to oligomerization of TIFA proteins, a mechanism controlling NF-κB activation and pro-inflammatory gene expression. Here, we compare the ability of chemically synthesized βHBP and Shigella flexneri lysate to induce TIFA oligomerization in epithelial cells. We find that, unlike bacterial lysate, βHBP fails to initiate rapid TIFA oligomerization. It only induces delayed signaling, suggesting that βHBP must be processed intracellularly to trigger inflammation. Gene deletion and complementation analysis of the LPS biosynthesis pathway revealed that ADP-heptose is the bacterial metabolite responsible for rapid TIFA oligomerization. ADP-heptose sensing occurs down to 10-10 M. During S. flexneri infection, it results in cytokine production, a process dependent on the kinase ALPK1. Altogether, our results rule out a major role of βHBP in S. flexneri infection and identify ADP-heptose as a new bacterial PAMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego García-Weber
- INSERM, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Dangeard
- INSERM, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Johan Cornil
- Chemistry of Biomolecules Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris Cedex 15, France.,CNRS UMR3523, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Linda Thai
- Chemistry of Biomolecules Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris Cedex 15, France.,CNRS UMR3523, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Alla Zamyatina
- Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Laurence A Mulard
- Chemistry of Biomolecules Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, Paris Cedex 15, France.,CNRS UMR3523, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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