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Responses to incremental nutrient supply on energy and protein metabolism in pre-weaning dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2024:S0022-0302(24)00570-8. [PMID: 38490554 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2024-24338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Recently reviewed development objectives and feeding practices in young dairy calves require an adaptation of nutrient recommendations set for milk replacer (MR) composition. Nutrient requirements of calves younger than 21 d of age, and those of calves fed with high levels of milk replacer are insufficiently quantified. The efficiency at which macronutrients are utilized, particularly protein, substantially diminishes with age, and there is little data for the first weeks of life. In addition, in older (pre-)ruminants, protein and energy can be simultaneously limiting for protein gain. Whether this also applies to calves in the first weeks of life is unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to quantify the responses in protein and fat gain to incremental supply of protein, fat, or lactose to MR in very young calves. Thirty-two groups of 3 mixed-sex Holstein-Frisian newborn calves (3.4 ± 1.6 d of age), were randomly assigned to one of 4 dietary treatments applied for 19 d: a basal MR (23.3% CP, 21.2% CF and 48.8% lactose of DM), provided at 550 kJ/kg BW0.85 per day (CON; n = 24), or the basal MR incrementally supplied with 126 kJ of DE/BW0.85 per day as milk fat (+FAT; n = 23), lactose (+LAC; n = 24) or milk protein (+PRO; n = 23). Calves were fed MR in 2 daily meals and had ad libitum access to water, but did not have access to calf starter nor any other solid feed. After 2 weeks of adaptation to their respective diets, groups of calves were placed for one week in an open-circuit respiration chamber for nitrogen and energy balance measurements (5 d). The incremental nutrient efficiencies indicate what percentage of extra intake of nutrients is retained. In this study, we observed that with every 100 g increase in protein intake, 52% was converted into protein deposition, while 44% contributed to heat production. Similarly, a 100 g increase in fat intake resulted in 67% being stored as fat, 22% being released as heat, and only 5% being retained as protein. Likewise, a 100 g increment in lactose intake led to 49% being stored as fat, with 38% being released as heat. Additional protein intake was not deposited as fat, extra energy intake (fat, and additional lactose) increased post absorptive N efficiency in young calves.
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Effects of mixing a high-fat extruded pellet with a dairy calf starter on performance, feed intake, and digestibility. J Dairy Sci 2022; 105:8087-8098. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-22065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Metabolic and performance responses to the replacement of lactose by fat in milk replacer formulations for dairy calves. Animal 2020; 15:100031. [PMID: 33515990 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2020.100031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent trend in the dairy industry towards elevated planes of milk feeding of young calves requires reconsideration of calf milk replacer (CMR) formulations. The fat:lactose ratio in CMR is typically lower than that of whole milk and effects of increasing fat inclusion at the expense of lactose in CMR on nutrient metabolism and gut function of rearing calves are not sufficiently understood. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the effect of increasing replacement of lactose by fat on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and metabolism, and glucose/insulin sensitivity. A total of 40 male calves (1.7 ± 0.10 days of age, 46.7 ± 0.76 kg BW) were blocked based on arrival date and randomly assigned to one of four treatments containing differing levels of fat and lactose (18F: 18.8% and 47.6%; 22F: 22.3% and 42.8%; 26F: 26.0% and 38.6%; 30F: 30.1% and 33.8%, fat and lactose DM, respectively). Calves were individually housed for the duration of the 11 week study and received their CMR (150 g/L) twice a day (0700 and 1600 h) from a teat bucket. The CMR feeding schedule consisted of 6 L/d from d 2 to 14, 7 L/d from d 15 to 56, and then 4 L/d during gradual weaning from 56 to 63 days. Pelleted starter, chopped straw, and water were available ad libitum throughout the study. Measurements included feed intake, growth, nutrient digestibility, fecal composition, and blood parameters. A glucose tolerance test (GTT) was performed between 28 and 32 days of age. By design, metabolizable energy intake from CMR increased linearly with fat level, but this did not result in a difference in BW, ADG, or concentrate intake. Fecal composition remained unaffected by treatment except for higher fat content in 22F compared to 26F. Also, plasma non-esterified fatty acids and total bilirubin differences were limited to 22F having the highest values whereas 26F had the lowest values. Regarding the GTT, total area under the curve (AUC) for glucose was highest in 22F and 26F and lowest in 18F whereas the AUC between 30 and 60 min for glucose was highest in 26F and lowest in 18F and 22F. Overall, altering the lactose:fat ratio in CMR did not affect growth performance while having minor effects on nutrient metabolism, but future investigation should focus on physiological consequences and effects in adult life to understand biological impact of fat and lactose levels in CMR for rearing calves.
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Determining the nutritional boundaries for replacing lactose with glucose in milk replacers for calves fed twice daily. J Dairy Sci 2020; 103:7018-7027. [PMID: 32600764 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2019-18034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The effect of replacing lactose with glucose on the gastrointestinal system of young calves at levels above 20% diet inclusion in milk replacer (MR) is not well described. The aim of this study was to determine tolerance to glucose inclusion at the direct expense of lactose on glucose metabolism, health, and growth performance in Holstein male calves. In total, 110 Holstein male dairy calves (16 ± 2.5 d and 50.3 ± 0.2 kg) were acquired from a commercial collection center. After an adaptation period of 3 d, 100 calves were selected for the study based on health parameters. Calves were blocked based on body weight measured on d 4 after arrival. Within each block, calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 levels of glucose inclusion (replacing lactose): 0% (L1, n = 20), 10% (L2, n = 20), 20% (L3, n = 20), 30% (L4, n = 20), and 40% (L5, n = 20), leading to an estimated osmolality range from 417 (L1) to 586 mOsm/kg (L5). Carbohydrates were exchanged based on hexose equivalents, and glucose delivery was standardized across treatments, while the rest of the formula (60%) remained unchanged. Calves received L1 during the adaptation period of 3 d and were then exposed to their respective treatment until d 47 after arrival. Milk replacer was provided daily in 2 equally sized meals. Meal size was 2.0 L during the 3-d adaptation period and gradually increased to 4.0 L until weaning (d 35 after arrival). During weaning, meal size decreased from 4.0 to 2.0 L on d 36, and MR was withdrawn on d 48 after arrival. Straw and concentrates were offered ad libitum from d 25 onward. Calves had ad libitum access to water throughout the study. Measurements included daily feed intakes, weekly body weight, and weekly spot feces sampling in all calves. Blood samples were collected on d 18. Additionally, postprandial responses of insulin and glucose were measured in 6 calves per treatment on d 19, 20, and 21. Increasing glucose inclusion (at the direct expense of lactose) in MR did not affect growth but linearly increased mortality, which was as high as 25% (5/20) in L5. Mortality was primarily associated with gastrointestinal disorders (6/11). At higher glucose levels, calves needed greater serum insulin concentrations to control glycemia, as shown by a linear increase in the area under the curve for insulin. Furthermore, calves needed more time to control glycemia, as indicated by a linear increase in the maximal concentration of insulin. Consequently, there was a linear increase in area under the curve for glucose. Even though calves needed more time and higher insulin concentrations for 30% glucose inclusion and higher, the glucose-to-insulin ratio did not differ across treatments. However, high glucose inclusion levels in MR affected calf mortality and is not a suitable strategy for lactose replacement.
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Effects of exchanging lactose for fat in milk replacer on ad libitum feed intake and growth performance in dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2020; 103:4275-4287. [PMID: 32113757 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2019-17382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The recent trend in the dairy industry toward ad libitum feeding of young calves merits reconsideration of calf milk replacer (CMR) formulations. Additionally, feed intake regulation in young calves provided with ad libitum milk and solid feeds is insufficiently understood. This study was designed to determine the effect of exchanging lactose for fat in CMR on voluntary feed intake and growth performance. Lactose was exchanged for fat on a weight/weight basis, resulting in different energy contents per kilogram of CMR. Thirty-two male calves (1.7 ± 0.12 d of age, 47.6 ± 0.83 kg of body weight) were assigned to 1 of 16 blocks based on arrival date. Within each block, calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments. The experimental period was divided into 4 periods. In period 1, until 14 ± 1.7 d of age, calves were individually housed, restricted-fed their assigned CMR treatments at 2.5 to 3 L twice daily, and provided with unlimited access to water, chopped straw, and starter. In period 2, calves were group-housed with 8 calves per pen and received ad libitum access to their assigned CMR treatments, starter feed, chopped wheat straw, and water. During period 3, from 43 until 63 d of age, calves were weaned by restricting CMR allowance in 2 steps, maintaining access to all other feeds. All calves were completely weaned at d 64 of age and were monitored until 77 d of age (period 4). Measurements included the intake of all dietary components, body weight gain, and a selection of blood traits. Increasing fat content at the expense of lactose decreased CMR intake by 10%, whereas total calculated metabolizable energy intake and growth remained equal between treatments. Total solid feed (starter and straw) consumption was not affected by CMR composition. These data indicate that calves fed ad libitum regulate their CMR intake based on energy content. High-fat CMR increased plasma phosphate, nonesterified fatty acids, triglycerides, and bilirubin, whereas plasma glucose remained unchanged. Despite the limited animal numbers in the present experiment, there was a significant decrease in the total number of health events (mainly respiratory) requiring therapeutic intervention and in the total number of therapeutic interventions in calves fed high-fat CMR. Calves appeared to consume CMR based on energy content, with a difference in ad libitum intake proportional to the difference in energy content of the CMR, maintaining equal body weight gain and solid feed intake.
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Effect of energy source in calf milk replacer on performance, digestibility, and gut permeability in rearing calves. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:3994-4001. [PMID: 30852011 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Current calf milk replacer (CMR) compositions significantly differ from whole milk in their levels of energy, protein, and minerals. Energy source is one of the major differences, as CMR contains high levels of lactose, whereas whole milk contains higher levels of fat. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of partially exchanging lactose for fat on performance, digestibility, and gut permeability in calves fed twice daily on a high feeding plane. Lactose and fat were exchanged in the CMR formulation on a weight-weight basis. The CMR were isonitrogenous but not isoenergetic. A total of 60 male Holstein-Friesian calves were assigned to 1 of 30 blocks based on serum IgG, body weight, and date of collection after birth. Within each block, calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments: high fat and high lactose. The CMR was provided twice daily until 49 d of age, followed by a gradual weaning period of 14 d. Starter, straw, and water were available ad libitum throughout the complete study. Exchanging lactose for fat did not affect growth; intakes of starter, straw, water, crude protein, or total energy; or apparent total-tract digestibility of nutrients. Gastrointestinal permeability was assessed by measuring the recovery of lactulose and Cr in 24-h urine and the Cr concentration and lactulose:d-mannitol ratio in serum following an oral pulse dose. Urinary recoveries of Cr and lactulose were generally low in both treatments but were higher in calves fed the high-fat CMR. Accordingly, the serum lactulose:d-mannitol ratio and serum Cr concentrations were higher in calves fed the high-fat CMR. In wk 1 and during the weaning transition, calves fed the high-fat CMR had significantly fewer abnormal fecal scores. In conclusion, exchanging lactose for fat in the CMR did not affect growth performance, total feed intake, or nutrient digestibility. The high-fat CMR was associated with an increase in permeability markers but positively influenced fecal scores in calves.
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Preweaning nutrient supply alters mammary gland transcriptome expression relating to morphology, lipid accumulation, DNA synthesis, and RNA expression in Holstein heifer calves. J Dairy Sci 2019; 102:2618-2630. [PMID: 30612800 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyze the mammary gland transcriptome to determine how preweaning nutrient supply alters the molecular mechanisms that regulate preweaning mammary development. Holstein heifers were fed via milk replacer (MR) either an elevated level of nutrient intake (ELE; on average, 5.9 ± 0.2 Mcal of ME in 8.4 L of MR/d, n = 6) or a restricted amount of nutrients (RES; 2.8 ± 0.2 Mcal of ME in 4 L of MR/d, n = 5) for 54 d after birth, at which point they were slaughtered and samples of mammary parenchyma tissue were obtained. Parenchymal mRNA was analyzed, and the fold change (FC) of 18,111 genes (ELE relative to RES) was uploaded to Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software (Qiagen Bioinformatics, Redwood City, CA) for transcriptomic analysis. Using a threshold of P < 0.05, IPA identified that the FC of 1,931 of 18,811 differentially expressed genes (DEG) could be used for the analysis. A total of 18 molecular and cellular functions were relevant to DEG arising from the treatments; the 5 functions most associated with DEG were cell death and survival, cellular movement, cellular development, cellular growth and proliferation, and lipid metabolism. Based on the directional FC of DEG, the mammary gland of ELE heifers was predicted to have increased epithelial-mesenchymal transition (Z = 2.685) and accumulation of lipid (Z = 2.322), whereas the synthesis of DNA (Z = -2.137), transactivation of RNA (Z = -2.254), expression of RNA (Z = -2.405), transcription (Z = -2.482), and transactivation (Z = -2.611) were all predicted to be decreased. Additionally, IPA predicted the activation status of 13 upstream regulators with direct influence on DEG as affected by ELE feeding that were ligand-dependent nuclear receptors (n = 2), enzymes (n = 1), or transcription regulators (n = 10). Of these, 6 were activated (Z > 2) and 7 were inhibited (Z < -2). In summary, feeding ELE preweaning altered the mammary transcriptome of Holstein heifers, affecting cell functions involved in the morphological and physiological development of the mammary gland.
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345 Energy source of milk replacer affects glucose homeostasis in neonatal calves. J Anim Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/jas/sky404.375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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136 Increased pre-weaning metabolizable energy supply affects the expression of genes related to adipogenesis and lipid metabolism in the skeletal muscle of prepubertal Holstein heifers. J Anim Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/jas/sky404.767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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10
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PSXI-13 Nutrient supply alters adipose tissue physiology in pre-weaned calves. J Anim Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/jas/sky404.913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Effects of fat inclusion in starter feeds for dairy calves by mixing increasing levels of a high-fat extruded pellet with a conventional highly fermentable pellet. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:10962-10972. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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12
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Short communication: Parameters of abomasal emptying and glucose-insulin dynamics in Holstein-Friesian calves at 2 ages and 2 levels of milk replacer intake. J Dairy Sci 2017; 100:5068-5072. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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13
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Effect of plane of milk replacer intake and age on glucose and insulin kinetics and abomasal emptying in female Holstein Friesian dairy calves fed twice daily. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:8007-8017. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-10826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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14
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Economic and environmental effects of providing increased amounts of solid feed to veal calves. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:2180-2189. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-9212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Effects of solid feed level and roughage-to-concentrate ratio on ruminal drinking and passage kinetics of milk replacer, concentrates, and roughage in veal calves. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:5621-9. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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16
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The role of solid feed amount and composition and of milk replacer supply in veal calf welfare. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:5467-81. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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17
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Effect of protein provision via milk replacer or solid feed on protein metabolism in veal calves. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:1119-26. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Utilization of roughages and concentrates relative to that of milk replacer increases strongly with age in veal calves. J Dairy Sci 2014; 97:6475-84. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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19
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Evaluation of the SF6 tracer technique for estimating methane emission rates with reference to dairy cows using a mechanistic model. J Theor Biol 2014; 353:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2014.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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20
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P343: Influence of a single dose of fluoxetine on brain activity during movement observation and execution, muscle activity and motor function in chronic stroke patients. Clin Neurophysiol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/s1388-2457(14)50458-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Erratum to “Low-protein solid feed improves the utilization of milk replacer for protein gain in veal calves” (J. Dairy Sci. 95:6654–6664). J Dairy Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2013-96-1-725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Low-protein solid feed improves the utilization of milk replacer for protein gain in veal calves. J Dairy Sci 2012; 95:6654-64. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-5463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Effects of early rumen development and solid feed composition on growth performance and abomasal health in veal calves. J Dairy Sci 2012; 95:3190-9. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2011-4643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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P2.15 Differential cortical activation during observation and imaging. Clin Neurophysiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/s1388-2457(11)60214-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid content of blanched sweet green pepper during chilled storage in modified atmospheres. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR LEBENSMITTEL-UNTERSUCHUNG UND -FORSCHUNG 1993; 197:546-9. [PMID: 8303949 DOI: 10.1007/bf01192854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Sweet green pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cut into pieces was analysed for ascorbic acid (AA) and dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA) content before and after blanching, after 1, 4 and 7 days of chilled storage in modified atmosphere, and after reheating. No difference in retention of AA was noted between storage in 2 and 4% O2 atmospheres, whereas retention during storage in air was significantly lower. Production of DHAA during storage increased with increased O2 content in the atmosphere. After 7 days of storage, DHAA contributed 10-35% of the total AA, and DHAA contributed 12-25% after reheating, depending on the O2 content in the atmosphere. Since the vitamin activity of DHAA is considered to be the same as that of AA, it is concluded that the content of DHAA in processed green pepper is of importance and should be measured together with AA.
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[HBO-V-Organizational version in Nijmegen. Result of regional cooperation between nursing education and practice field (Higher Professional Nursing Education)]. TVZ : HET VAKBLAD VOOR DE VERPLEGING 1991:296-300. [PMID: 1904741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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