Exploiting solid-state dynamic nuclear polarization NMR spectroscopy to establish the spatial distribution of polymorphic phases in a solid material

Solid-state DNP NMR can enhance the ability to detect minor amounts of solid phases within heterogenous materials. Here we demonstrate that NMR contrast based on the transport of DNP-enhanced polarization can be exploited in the challenging case of early detection of a small amount of a minor polymorphic phase within a major polymorph, and we show that this approach can yield quantitative information on the spatial distribution of the two polymorphs. We focus on the detection of a minor amount (<4%) of polymorph III of m-aminobenzoic acid within a powder sample of polymorph I at natural isotopic abundance. Based on proposed models of the spatial distribution of the two polymorphs, simulations of 1H spin diffusion allow NMR data to be calculated for each model as a function of particle size and the relative amounts of the polymorphs. A comparison between simulated and experimental NMR data allows the model(s) best representing the spatial distribution of the polymorphs in the system to be established.

Unraveling the Complex Solid-State Phase Transition Behavior of 1-Iodoadamantane, a Material for Which Ostensibly Identical Crystals Undergo Different Transformation Pathways

Phase transitions in crystalline molecular solids have important implications in the fundamental understanding of materials properties and in the development of materials applications. Herein, we report the solid-state phase transition behavior of 1-iodoadamantane (1-IA) investigated using a multi-technique strategy [synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), single-crystal XRD, solid-state NMR, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], which reveals complex phase transition behavior on cooling from ambient temperature to ca. 123 K and on subsequent heating to the melting temperature (348 K). Starting from the known phase of 1-IA at ambient temperature (phase A), three low-temperature phases are identified (phases B, C, and D); the crystal structures of phases B and C are reported, together with a re-determination of the structure of phase A. Remarkably, single-crystal XRD shows that some individual crystals of phase A transform to phase B, while other crystals of phase A transform instead to phase C. Results (from powder XRD and DSC) on cooling a powder sample of phase A are fully consistent with this behavior while also revealing an additional transformation pathway from phase A to phase D. Thus, on cooling, a powder sample of phase A transforms partially to phase C (at 229 K), partially to phase D (at 226 K) and partially to phase B (at 211 K). During the cooling process, each of the phases B, C, and D is formed directly from phase A, and no transformations are observed between phases B, C, and D. On heating the resulting triphasic powder sample of phases B, C, and D from 123 K, phase B transforms to phase D (at 211 K), followed by the transformation of phase D to phase C (at 255 K), and finally, phase C transforms to phase A (at 284 K). From these observations, it is apparent that different crystals of phase A, which are ostensibly identical at the level of information revealed by XRD, must actually differ in other aspects that significantly influence their low-temperature phase transition pathways. This unusual behavior will stimulate future studies to gain deeper insights into the specific properties that control the phase transition pathways in individual crystals of this material.

Boron Nitride-Doped Polyphenylenic Organogels

Herein, we describe the synthesis of the first boron nitride-doped polyphenylenic material obtained through a [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction between a triethynyl borazine unit and a biscyclopentadienone derivative, which undergoes organogel formation in chlorinated solvents (the critical jellification concentration is 4% w/w in CHCl₃). The polymer has been characterized extensively by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, solid-state ¹³C NMR, solid-state ¹¹B NMR, and by comparison with the isolated monomeric unit. Furthermore, the polymer gels formed in chlorinated solvents have been thoroughly characterized and studied, showing rheological properties comparable to those of polyacrylamide gels with a low crosslinker percentage. Given the thermal and chemical stability, the material was studied as a potential support for solid-state electrolytes. showing properties comparable to those of polyethylene glycol-based electrolytes, thus presenting great potential for the application of this new class of material in lithium-ion batteries.

A structure determination protocol based on combined analysis of 3D-ED data, powder XRD data, solid-state NMR data and DFT-D calculations reveals the structure of a new polymorph of l-tyrosine

We report the crystal structure of a new polymorph of l-tyrosine (denoted the β polymorph), prepared by crystallization from the gas phase following vacuum sublimation. Structure determination was carried out by combined analysis of three-dimensional electron diffraction (3D-ED) data and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) data. Specifically, 3D-ED data were required for reliable unit cell determination and space group assignment, with structure solution carried out independently from both 3D-ED data and powder XRD data, using the direct-space strategy for structure solution implemented using a genetic algorithm. Structure refinement was carried out both from powder XRD data, using the Rietveld profile refinement technique, and from 3D-ED data. The final refined structure was validated both by periodic DFT-D calculations, which confirm that the structure corresponds to an energy minimum on the energy landscape, and by the fact that the values of isotropic ¹³C NMR chemical shifts calculated for the crystal structure using DFT-D methodology are in good agreement with the experimental high-resolution solid-state ¹³C NMR spectrum. Based on DFT-D calculations using the PBE0-MBD method, the β polymorph is meta-stable with respect to the previously reported crystal structure of l-tyrosine (now denoted the α polymorph). Crystal structure prediction calculations using the AIRSS approach suggest that there are three other plausible crystalline polymorphs of l-tyrosine, with higher energy than the α and β polymorphs.

Circumventing a challenging aspect of crystal structure determination from powder diffraction data

Schmidt and co-workers [ Acta Cryst. (2022), B78, 195–213], report a strategy for structure determination from powder XRD data in which unit-cell determination and structure solution are combined within a single process, rather than handling them as sequential stages on the structure determination pathway. This strategy offers the prospect to achieve successful structure determination in cases for which conventional approaches for indexing powder XRD data prove to be challenging.

Biogenic Guanine Crystals Are Solid Solutions of Guanine and Other Purine Metabolites

Highly reflective crystals of the nucleotide base guanine are widely distributed in animal coloration and visual systems. Organisms precisely control the morphology and organization of the crystals to optimize different optical effects, but little is known about how this is achieved. Here we examine a fundamental question that has remained unanswered after over 100 years of research on guanine: what are the crystals made of? Using solution-state and solid-state chemical techniques coupled with structural analysis by powder XRD and solid-state NMR, we compare the purine compositions and the structures of seven biogenic guanine crystals with different crystal morphologies, testing the hypothesis that intracrystalline dopants influence the crystal shape. We find that biogenic “guanine” crystals are not pure crystals but molecular alloys (aka solid solutions and mixed crystals) of guanine, hypoxanthine, and sometimes xanthine. Guanine host crystals occlude homogeneous mixtures of other purines, sometimes in remarkably large amounts (up to 20% of hypoxanthine), without significantly altering the crystal structure of the guanine host. We find no correlation between the biogenic crystal morphology and dopant content and conclude that dopants do not dictate the crystal morphology of the guanine host. The ability of guanine crystals to host other molecules enables animals to build physiologically “cheaper” crystals from mixtures of metabolically available purines, without impeding optical functionality. The exceptional levels of doping in biogenic guanine offer inspiration for the design of mixed molecular crystals that incorporate multiple functionalities in a single material.

Solid-State Structural Properties of Alloxazine Determined from Powder XRD Data in Conjunction with DFT-D Calculations and Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy: Unraveling the Tautomeric Identity and Pathways for Tautomeric Interconversion

We report the solid-state structural properties of alloxazine, a tricyclic ring system found in many biologically important molecules, with structure determination carried out directly from powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) data. As the crystal structures containing the alloxazine and isoalloxazine tautomers both give a high-quality fit to the powder XRD data in Rietveld refinement, other techniques are required to establish the tautomeric form in the solid state. In particular, high-resolution solid-state ¹⁵N NMR data support the presence of the alloxazine tautomer, based on comparison between isotropic chemical shifts in the experimental ¹⁵N NMR spectrum and the corresponding values calculated for the crystal structures containing the alloxazine and isoalloxazine tautomers. Furthermore, periodic DFT-D calculations at the PBE0-MBD level indicate that the crystal structure containing the alloxazine tautomer has significantly lower energy. We also report computational investigations of the interconversion between the tautomeric forms in the crystal structure via proton transfer along two intermolecular N-H···N hydrogen bonds; DFT-D calculations at the PBE0-MBD level indicate that the tautomeric interconversion is associated with a lower energy transition state for a mechanism involving concerted (rather than sequential) proton transfer along the two hydrogen bonds. However, based on the relative energies of the crystal structures containing the alloxazine and isoalloxazine tautomers, it is estimated that under conditions of thermal equilibrium at ambient temperature, more than 99.9% of the molecules in the crystal structure will exist as the alloxazine tautomer.

Orbital Mapping of Semiconducting Perylenes on Cu(111)

Semiconducting O-doped polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons constitute a class of molecules whose optoelectronic properties can be tailored by acting on the π-extension of the carbon-based frameworks and on the oxygen linkages. Although much is known about their photophysical and electrochemical properties in solution, their self-assembly interfacial behavior on solid substrates has remained unexplored so far. In this paper, we have focused our attention on the on-surface self-assembly of O-doped bi-perylene derivatives. Their ability to assemble in ordered networks on Cu(111) single-crystalline surfaces allowed a combination of structural, morphological, and spectroscopic studies. In particular, the exploitation of the orbital mapping methodology based on angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy, with the support of scanning tunneling microscopy and low-energy electron diffraction, allowed the identification of both the electronic structure of the adsorbates and their geometric arrangement. Our multi-technique experimental investigation includes the structure determination from powder X-ray diffraction data for a specific compound and demonstrates that the electronic structure of such large molecular self-assembled networks can be studied using the reconstruction methods of molecular orbitals from photoemission data even in the presence of segregated chiral domains.

Monitoring Crystallization Processes in Confined Porous Materials by Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Establishing mechanistic understanding of crystallization processes at the molecular level is challenging, as it requires both the detection of transient solid phases and monitoring the evolution of both liquid and solid phases as a function of time. Here, we demonstrate the application of dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) enhanced NMR spectroscopy to study crystallization under nanoscopic confinement, revealing a viable approach to interrogate different stages of crystallization processes. We focus on crystallization of glycine within the nanometric pores (7-8 nm) of a tailored mesoporous SBA-15 silica material with wall-embedded TEMPO radicals. The results show that the early stages of crystallization, characterized by the transition from the solution phase to the first crystalline phase, are straightforwardly observed using this experimental strategy. Importantly, the NMR sensitivity enhancement provided by DNP allows the detection of intermediate phases that would not be observable using standard solid-state NMR experiments. Our results also show that the metastable β polymorph of glycine, which has only transient existence under bulk crystallization conditions, remains trapped within the pores of the mesoporous SBA-15 silica material for more than 200 days.

Exploiting in situ NMR to monitor the formation of a metal-organic framework

The formation processes of metal-organic frameworks are becoming more widely researched using in situ techniques, although there remains a scarcity of NMR studies in this field. In this work, the synthesis of framework MFM-500(Ni) has been investigated using an in situ NMR strategy that provides information on the time-evolution of the reaction and crystallization process. In our in situ NMR study of MFM-500(Ni) formation, liquid-phase 1H NMR data recorded as a function of time at fixed temperatures (between 60 and 100 °C) afford qualitative information on the solution-phase processes and quantitative information on the kinetics of crystallization, allowing the activation energies for nucleation (61.4 ± 9.7 kJ mol-1) and growth (72.9 ± 8.6 kJ mol-1) to be determined. Ex situ small-angle X-ray scattering studies (at 80 °C) provide complementary nanoscale information on the rapid self-assembly prior to MOF crystallization and in situ powder X-ray diffraction confirms that the only crystalline phase present during the reaction (at 90 °C) is phase-pure MFM-500(Ni). This work demonstrates that in situ NMR experiments can shed new light on MOF synthesis, opening up the technique to provide better understanding of how MOFs are formed.

Direct-Space Structure Determination of Covalent Organic Frameworks from 3D Electron Diffraction Data

Structure determination of covalent organic frameworks (COFs) with atomic precision is a bottleneck that hinders the development of COF chemistry. Although three-dimensional electron diffraction (3D-ED) data has been used to solve structures of sub-micrometer-sized COFs, successful structure solution is not guaranteed as the data resolution is usually low. We demonstrate that the direct-space strategy for structure solution, implemented using a genetic algorithm (GA), is a successful approach for structure determination of COF-300 from 3D-ED data. Structural models with different geometric constraints were considered in the GA calculations, with successful structure solution achieved from room-temperature 3D-ED data with a resolution as low as ca. 3.78 Å. The generality of this strategy was further verified for different phases of COF-300. This study demonstrates a viable strategy for structure solution of COF materials from 3D-ED data of limited resolution, which may facilitate the discovery of new COF materials in the future.

Rationalization of the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of aluminium phosphates synthesized from different precursors

The aim of this paper is to clarify the assignments of X-ray photoelectron spectra of aluminium phosphate materials prepared from the reaction of phosphoric acid with three different aluminium precursors [Al(OH)₃, Al(NO₃)₃ and AlCl₃] at different annealing temperatures. The materials prepared have been studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared spectroscopy and high-resolution solid-state ³¹P NMR spectroscopy. A progressive polymerization from orthophosphate to metaphosphates is observed by XRD, ATR-FTIR and solid state ³¹P NMR, and on this basis the oxygen states observed in the XP spectra at 532.3 eV and 533.7 eV are assigned to P–O–Al and P–O–P environments, respectively. The presence of cyclic polyphosphates at the surface of the samples is also evident.

Using NMR, XRD and FTIR we clarify the assignment of XP spectra of aluminium phosphates prepared from three different aluminium precursors [Al(OH)₃, Al(NO₃)₃ and AlCl₃] at different annealing temperatures.

Manometric real-time studies of the mechanochemical synthesis of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks

We demonstrate a simple method for real-time monitoring of mechanochemical synthesis of metal–organic frameworks, by measuring changes in pressure of gas produced in the reaction. Using this manometric method to monitor the mechanosynthesis of the zeolitic imidazolate framework ZIF-8 from basic zinc carbonate reveals an intriguing feedback mechanism in which the initially formed ZIF-8 reacts with the CO₂ byproduct to produce a complex metal carbonate phase, the structure of which is determined directly from powder X-ray diffraction data. We also show that the formation of the carbonate phase may be prevented by addition of excess ligand. The excess ligand can subsequently be removed by sublimation, and reused. This enables not only the synthesis but also the purification, as well as the activation of the MOF to be performed entirely without solvent.

We demonstrate a simple method for real-time monitoring of mechanochemical synthesis of metal–organic frameworks, by measuring changes in pressure of gas produced in the reaction.

Reply to comment on Couzi et al. (2018): a phenomenological model for structural phase transitions in incommensurate alkane/urea inclusion compounds

In a recent paper (Couzi et al. 2018 R. Soc. open sci. 5, 180058. (doi:10.1098/rsos.180058)), we proposed a new phenomenological model to account for the I↔II↔"III" phase sequence in incommensurate n-alkane/urea inclusion compounds, which represents an alternative interpretation to that proposed in work of Toudic et al. In a Comment (Toudic et al. 2019 R. Soc. open sci. 6, 182073. (doi:10.1098/rsos.182073)), Toudic et al. have questioned our assignment of the superspace group of phase II of n-nonadecane/urea, which they have previously assigned, based on a (3 + 2)-dimensional superspace, as C2221(00γ)(10δ). In this Reply, we present new results from a comprehensive synchrotron single-crystal X-ray diffraction study of n-nonadecane/urea, involving measurements as a detailed function of temperature across the I↔II↔"III" phase transition sequence. Our results demonstrate conclusively that "main reflections" (h, k, l, 0) with h+k odd are observed in phase II of n-nonadecane/urea (including temperatures in phase II that are just below the transition from phase I to phase II), in full support of our assignment of the (3+1)-dimensional superspace group P212121(00γ) to phase II. As our phenomenological model is based on phase II and phase "III" of this incommensurate material having the same (3+1)-dimensional superspace group P212121(00γ), it follows that the new X-ray diffraction results are in full support of our phenomenological model.

Exploiting in-situ solid-state NMR spectroscopy to probe the early stages of hydration of calcium aluminate cement

We report a high-field in-situ solid-state NMR study of the hydration of CaAl₂O₄ (the most important hydraulic phase in calcium aluminate cement), based on time-resolved measurements of solid-state ²⁷Al NMR spectra during the early stages of the reaction. A variant of the CLASSIC NMR methodology, involving alternate recording of direct-excitation and MQMAS ²⁷Al NMR spectra, was used to monitor the ²⁷Al species present in both the solid and liquid phases as a function of time. Our results provide quantitative information on the changes in the relative amounts of ²⁷Al sites with tetrahedral coordination (the anhydrous reactant phase) and octahedral coordination (the hydrated product phases) as a function of time, and reveal significantly different kinetic and mechanistic behaviour of the hydration reaction at the different temperatures (20 °C and 60 °C) studied.

Exploiting in-situ solid-state NMR spectroscopy to probe the early stages of hydration of calcium aluminate cement

We report a high-field in-situ solid-state NMR study of the hydration of CaAl₂O₄ (the most important hydraulic phase in calcium aluminate cement), based on time-resolved measurements of solid-state ²⁷Al NMR spectra during the early stages of the reaction. A variant of the CLASSIC NMR methodology, involving alternate recording of direct-excitation and MQMAS ²⁷Al NMR spectra, was used to monitor the ²⁷Al species present in both the solid and liquid phases as a function of time. Our results provide quantitative information on the changes in the relative amounts of ²⁷Al sites with tetrahedral coordination (the anhydrous reactant phase) and octahedral coordination (the hydrated product phases) as a function of time, and reveal significantly different kinetic and mechanistic behaviour of the hydration reaction at the different temperatures (20 °C and 60 °C) studied.

Aluminium-catalysed isocyanate trimerization, enhanced by exploiting a dynamic coordination sphere

Main-group metals are inherently labile, hindering their use in catalysis. We exploit this lability in the synthesis of isocyanurates. For the first time we report a highly active catalyst that trimerizes alkyl, allyl and aryl isocyanates, and di-isocyanates, with low catalyst loadings under mild conditions, using a hemi-labile aluminium-pyridyl-bis(iminophenolate) complex.

A Strategy for Probing the Evolution of Crystallization Processes by Low-Temperature Solid-State NMR and Dynamic Nuclear Polarization

Crystallization plays an important role in many areas, and to derive a fundamental understanding of crystallization processes, it is essential to understand the sequence of solid phases produced as a function of time. Here, we introduce a new NMR strategy for studying the time evolution of crystallization processes, in which the crystallizing system is quenched rapidly to low temperature at specific time points during crystallization. The crystallized phase present within the resultant "frozen solution" may be investigated in detail using a range of sophisticated NMR techniques. The low temperatures involved allow dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) to be exploited to enhance the signal intensity in the solid-state NMR measurements, which is advantageous for detection and structural characterization of transient forms that are present only in small quantities. This work opens up the prospect of studying the very early stages of crystallization, at which the amount of solid phase present is intrinsically low.

Spatially resolved mapping of phase transitions in liquid-crystalline materials by X-ray birefringence imaging

X-ray Birefringence Imaging is shown to be a sensitive method for spatially resolved mapping of molecular orientations in liquid-crystalline materials.

The X-ray Birefringence Imaging (XBI) technique, first reported in 2014, is a sensitive method for spatially resolved mapping of the local orientational properties of anisotropic materials. We report the first application of the XBI technique to characterize molecular orientational ordering in a liquid crystalline material, demonstrating significant potential for exploiting XBI measurements to advance structural understanding of liquid crystal phases.

Polymorphic phase transformations of 3-chloro-trans-cinnamic acid and its solid solution with 3-bromo-trans-cinnamic acid

We have investigated the polymorphic phase transformations above ambient temperature for 3-chloro-trans-cinnamic acid (3-ClCA, C₉H₇ClO₂) and a solid solution of 3-ClCA and 3-bromo-trans-cinnamic acid (3-BrCA, C₉H₇BrO₂). At 413 K, the γ polymorph of 3-ClCA transforms to the β polymorph. Interestingly, the structure of the β polymorph of 3-ClCA obtained in this transformation is different from the structure of the β polymorph of 3-BrCA obtained in the corresponding polymorphic transformation from the γ polymorph of 3-BrCA, even though the γ polymorphs of 3-ClCA and 3-BrCA are isostructural. We also report a high-temperature phase transformation from a γ-type structure to a β-type structure for a solid solution of 3-ClCA and 3-BrCA (with a molar ratio close to 1:1). The γ polymorph of the solid solution is isostructural with the γ polymorphs of pure 3-ClCA and pure 3-BrCA, while the β-type structure produced in the phase transformation is structurally similar to the β polymorph of pure 3-BrCA.

A phenomenological model for structural phase transitions in incommensurate alkane/urea inclusion compounds

n-Alkane/urea inclusion compounds are crystalline materials in which n-alkane 'guest' molecules are located within parallel one-dimensional 'host' tunnels formed by a helical hydrogen-bonded arrangement of urea molecules. The periodic repeat distance of the guest molecules along the host tunnels is incommensurate with the periodic repeat distance of the host substructure. The structural properties of the high-temperature phase of these materials (phase I), which exist at ambient temperature, are described by a (3 + 1)-dimensional superspace. Recent publications have suggested that, in the prototypical incommensurate composite systems, n-nonadecane/urea and n-hexadecane/urea, two low-temperature phases II and 'III' exist and that one or both of these phases are described by a (3 + 2)-dimensional superspace. We present a phenomenological model based on symmetry considerations and developed in the frame of a pseudo-spin-phonon coupling mechanism, which accounts for the mechanisms responsible for the I ↔ II ↔ 'III' phase sequence. With reference to published experimental data, we demonstrate that, in all phases of these incommensurate materials, the structural properties are described by (3 + 1)-dimensional superspace groups. Around the temperature of the II ↔ 'III' transition, the macroscopic properties of the material are not actually associated with a phase transition, but instead represent a 'crossover' between two regimes involving different couplings between relevant order parameters.

Ab initio random structure searching of organic molecular solids: assessment and validation against experimental data

This paper explores the capability of using the DFT-D ab initio random structure searching (AIRSS) method to generate crystal structures of organic molecular materials, focusing on a system (m-aminobenzoic acid; m-ABA) that is known from experimental studies to exhibit abundant polymorphism. Within the structural constraints selected for the AIRSS calculations (specifically, centrosymmetric structures with Z = 4 for zwitterionic m-ABA molecules), the method is shown to successfully generate the two known polymorphs of m-ABA (form III and form IV) that have these structural features. We highlight various issues that are encountered in comparing crystal structures generated by AIRSS to experimental powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) data and solid-state magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR data, demonstrating successful fitting for some of the lowest energy structures from the AIRSS calculations against experimental low-temperature powder XRD data for known polymorphs of m-ABA, and showing that comparison of computed and experimental solid-state NMR parameters allows different hydrogen-bonding motifs to be discriminated.

Determination of a complex crystal structure in the absence of single crystals: analysis of powder X-ray diffraction data, guided by solid-state NMR and periodic DFT calculations, reveals a new 2'-deoxyguanosine structural motif

Derivatives of guanine exhibit diverse supramolecular chemistry, with a variety of distinct hydrogen-bonding motifs reported in the solid state, including ribbons and quartets, which resemble the G-quadruplex found in nucleic acids with sequences rich in guanine. Reflecting this diversity, the solid-state structural properties of 3',5'-bis-O-decanoyl-2'-deoxyguanosine, reported in this paper, reveal a hydrogen-bonded guanine ribbon motif that has not been observed previously for 2'-deoxyguanosine derivatives. In this case, structure determination was carried out directly from powder XRD data, representing one of the most challenging organic molecular structures (a 90-atom molecule) that has been solved to date by this technique. While specific challenges were encountered in the structure determination process, a successful outcome was achieved by augmenting the powder XRD analysis with information derived from solid-state NMR data and with dispersion-corrected periodic DFT calculations for structure optimization. The synergy of experimental and computational methodologies demonstrated in the present work is likely to be an essential feature of strategies to further expand the application of powder XRD as a technique for structure determination of organic molecular materials of even greater complexity in the future.

`NMR Crystallization': in-situ NMR techniques for time-resolved monitoring of crystallization processes

Solid-state NMR spectroscopy is a well-established and versatile technique for studying the structural and dynamic properties of solids, and there is considerable potential to exploit the power and versatility of solid-state NMR for in-situ studies of chemical processes. However, a number of technical challenges are associated with adapting this technique for in-situ studies, depending on the process of interest. Recently, an in-situ solid-state NMR strategy for monitoring the evolution of crystallization processes has been developed and has proven to be a promising approach for identifying the sequence of distinct solid forms present as a function of time during crystallization from solution, and for the discovery of new polymorphs. The latest development of this technique, called `CLASSIC' NMR, allows the simultaneous measurement of both liquid-state and solid-state NMR spectra as a function of time, thus yielding complementary information on the evolution of both the liquid phase and the solid phase during crystallization from solution. This article gives an overview of the range of NMR strategies that are currently available for in-situ studies of crystallization processes, with examples of applications that highlight the potential of these strategies to deepen our understanding of crystallization phenomena.

Determining Molecular Orientations in Disordered Materials from X-ray Linear Dichroism at the Iodine L1-Edge

To demonstrate that measurements of X-ray linear dichroism are effective for determining bond orientations in disordered materials, we report the first observation of X-ray linear dichroism at the iodine L₁-edge. The iodine-containing molecular solid studied in this work was the inclusion compound containing 4,4'-diiodobiphenyl guest molecules in the perhydrotriphenylene host structure. In this material, the guest substructure does not exhibit three-dimensional ordering, and thus diffraction-based techniques do not provide insights on the orientational properties of the guest molecules. Iodine L₁-edge X-ray absorption spectra, recorded as a function of orientation of a single crystal of the material, exhibit significant dichroism (whereas no dichroism is observed at the iodine L₂- and L₃-edges). From quantitative analysis of the X-ray dichroism, the orientational properties of the C-I bonds within this material are established. The results pave the way for applying X-ray dichroism to determine molecular orientational properties of other materials, especially for partially ordered materials such as liquid crystals, confined liquids, and disordered crystalline phases, for which diffraction techniques may not be applicable.

Calculation of solid-state NMR lineshapes using contour analysis

Two new methods for calculating lineshapes in solid-state NMR spectra are described. The first method, which we refer to as semi-analytical, allows the rapid calculation of quadrupolar central-transition lineshapes in both static and magic-angle spinning cases. The second method, which is fully numerical, allows the calculation of lineshapes resulting from any combination of interactions, including quadrupolar, dipolar and chemical shift anisotropy, and is not restricted to cases in which the principal axis systems for the different interactions are aligned. Both methods are derived from consideration of the contour lines on a plot of the resonance frequency against the Euler angles, allowing the intensity of the lineshape to be calculated at each frequency. Consequently, highly accurate lineshapes can be calculated more rapidly than previously possible, since only orientations contributing to each specific frequency are considered. For our semi-analytical method, the intensity of each point in the lineshape can be directly calculated in tens of milliseconds on a standard PC. In contrast, established methods can take several hours to calculate the same lineshape.

X-ray Birefringence Imaging of Materials with Anisotropic Molecular Dynamics

The X-ray birefringence imaging (XBI) technique, reported very recently, is a sensitive tool for spatially resolved mapping of the local orientational properties of anisotropic materials. In this paper, we report the first XBI measurements on materials that undergo anisotropic molecular dynamics. Using incident linearly polarized X-rays with energy close to the Br K-edge, the X-ray birefringence is dictated by the orientational properties of the C-Br bonds in the material. We focus on two materials (urea inclusion compounds containing 1,8-dibromooctane and 1,10-dibromodecane guest molecules) for which the reorientational dynamics of the brominated guest molecules (and hence the reorientational dynamics of the C-Br bonds) are already well characterized by other experimental techniques. The XBI results demonstrate clearly that, for the anisotropic molecular dynamics in these materials, the effective X-ray optic axis for the X-ray birefringence phenomenon is the time-averaged resultant of the orientational distribution of the C-Br bonds.

Monitoring the evolution of crystallization processes by in-situ solid-state NMR spectroscopy

Crystallization processes play a crucial role in many aspects of biological and physical sciences. Progress in deepening our fundamental understanding of such processes relies, to a large extent, on the development and application of new experimental strategies that allow direct in-situ monitoring of the process. In this paper, we give an overview of an in-situ solid-state NMR strategy that we have developed in recent years for monitoring the time-evolution of different polymorphic forms (or other solid forms) that arise as the function of time during crystallization from solution. The background to the strategy is described and several examples of the application of the technique are highlighted, focusing on both the evolution of different polymorphs during crystallization and the discovery of new polymorphs.

New in situ solid-state NMR techniques for probing the evolution of crystallization processes: pre-nucleation, nucleation and growth

The application of in situ techniques for investigating crystallization processes promises to yield significant new insights into fundamental aspects of crystallization science. With this motivation, we recently developed a new in situ solid-state NMR technique that exploits the ability of NMR to selectively detect the solid phase in heterogeneous solid–liquid systems (of the type that exist during crystallization from solution), with the liquid phase “invisible” to the measurement. As a consequence, the technique allows the first solid particles produced during crystallization to be observed and identified, and allows the evolution of different solid phases (e.g., polymorphs) present during the crystallization process to be monitored as a function of time. This in situ solid-state NMR strategy has been demonstrated to be a powerful approach for establishing the sequence of solid phases produced during crystallization and for the discovery of new polymorphs. The most recent advance of the in situ NMR methodology has been the development of a strategy (named “CLASSIC NMR”) that allows both solid-state NMR and liquid-state NMR spectra to be measured (essentially simultaneously) during the crystallization process, yielding information on the complementary changes that occur in both the solid and liquid phases as a function of time. In this article, we present new results that highlight the application of our in situ NMR techniques to successfully unravel different aspects of crystallization processes, focusing on: (i) the application of a CLASSIC NMR approach to monitor competitive inclusion processes in solid urea inclusion compounds, (ii) exploiting liquid-state NMR to gain insights into co-crystal formation between benzoic acid and pentafluorobenzoic acid, and (iii) applications of in situ solid-state NMR for the discovery of new solid forms of trimethylphosphine oxide and l-phenylalanine. Finally, the article discusses a number of important fundamental issues relating to practical aspects, the interpretation of results and the future scope of these techniques, including: (i) an assessment of the smallest size of solid particle that can be detected in in situ solid-state NMR studies of crystallization, (ii) an appraisal of whether the rapid sample spinning required by the NMR measurement technique may actually influence or perturb the crystallization behaviour, and (iii) a discussion of factors that influence the sensitivity and time-resolution of in situ solid-state NMR experiments.

"CLASSIC NMR": an in-situ NMR strategy for mapping the time-evolution of crystallization processes by combined liquid-state and solid-state measurements

A new in-situ NMR strategy (termed CLASSIC NMR) for mapping the evolution of crystallization processes is reported, involving simultaneous measurement of both liquid-state and solid-state NMR spectra as a function of time. This combined strategy allows complementary information to be obtained on the evolution of both the solid and liquid phases during the crystallization process. In particular, as crystallization proceeds (monitored by solid-state NMR), the solution state becomes more dilute, leading to changes in solution-state speciation and the modes of molecular aggregation in solution, which are monitored by liquid-state NMR. The CLASSIC NMR experiment is applied here to yield new insights into the crystallization of m-aminobenzoic acid.

X-ray birefringence imaging

The polarizing optical microscope has been used since the 19th century to study the structural anisotropy of materials, based on the phenomenon of optical birefringence. In contrast, the phenomenon of x-ray birefringence has been demonstrated only recently and has been shown to be a sensitive probe of the orientational properties of individual molecules and/or bonds in anisotropic solids. Here, we report a technique-x-ray birefringence imaging (XBI)-that enables spatially resolved mapping of x-ray birefringence of materials, representing the x-ray analog of the polarizing optical microscope. Our results demonstrate the utility and potential of XBI as a sensitive technique for imaging the local orientational properties of anisotropic materials, including characterization of changes in molecular orientational ordering associated with solid-state phase transitions and identification of the size, spatial distribution, and temperature dependence of domain structures.