Validating a forced-choice method for eliciting quality-of-reasoning judgments

In this paper we investigate the criterion validity of forced-choice comparisons of the quality of written arguments with normative solutions. Across two studies, novices and experts assessing quality of reasoning through a forced-choice design were both able to choose arguments supporting more accurate solutions-62.2% (SE = 1%) of the time for novices and 74.4% (SE = 1%) for experts-and arguments produced by larger teams-up to 82% of the time for novices and 85% for experts-with high inter-rater reliability, namely 70.58% (95% CI = 1.18) agreement for novices and 80.98% (95% CI = 2.26) for experts. We also explored two methods for increasing efficiency. We found that the number of comparative judgments needed could be substantially reduced with little accuracy loss by leveraging transitivity and producing quality-of-reasoning assessments using an AVL tree method. Moreover, a regression model trained to predict scores based on automatically derived linguistic features of participants' judgments achieved a high correlation with the objective accuracy scores of the arguments in our dataset. Despite the inherent subjectivity involved in evaluating differing quality of reasoning, the forced-choice paradigm allows even novice raters to perform beyond chance and can provide a valid, reliable, and efficient method for producing quality-of-reasoning assessments at scale.

The workload capacity of semantic search in convergent thinking

The present study used Systems Factorial Technology (Townsend & Nozawa, 1995) to investigate how people combine dual cues in semantic memory search. Our aims were (a) to understand how cues interact during the process of semantic search in convergent thinking and (b) to determine how workload capacity (i.e. cue-processing efficiency) is related to search performance. In two experiments, participants completed a typical convergent thinking test and a word production task. The results revealed that: (a) collective evidence supports similar patterns in cue-combination strategy despite individual differences in workload capacity, and (b) there exists a negative correlation between workload capacity and performance on convergent thinking test. A potential explanation is that, for the creative individual, loading many candidate answers leads to consumption of substantial processing resources that obtains as low workload capacity but also allows creative individuals to switch more easily from one candidate to another so that there is a higher probability of successfully producing an answer within a limited time. Our results further imply that workload capacity is a significant factor for the semantic search process in convergent thinking and provides new insight on the model of semantic search and creativity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Insight Is Not in the Problem: Investigating Insight in Problem Solving across Task Types

The feeling of insight in problem solving is typically associated with the sudden realization of a solution that appears obviously correct (Kounios et al., 2006). Salvi et al. (2016) found that a solution accompanied with sudden insight is more likely to be correct than a problem solved through conscious and incremental steps. However, Metcalfe (1986) indicated that participants would often present an inelegant but plausible (wrong) answer as correct with a high feeling of warmth (a subjective measure of closeness to solution). This discrepancy may be due to the use of different tasks or due to different methods in the measurement of insight (i.e., using a binary vs. continuous scale). In three experiments, we investigated both findings, using many different problem tasks (e.g., Compound Remote Associates, so-called classic insight problems, and non-insight problems). Participants rated insight-related affect (feelings of Aha-experience, confidence, surprise, impasse, and pleasure) on continuous scales. As expected we found that, for problems designed to elicit insight, correct solutions elicited higher proportions of reported insight in the solution compared to non-insight solutions; further, correct solutions elicited stronger feelings of insight compared to incorrect solutions.

The relevance of nanoscale biological fragments for ice nucleation in clouds

Most studies of the role of biological entities as atmospheric ice-nucleating particles have focused on relatively rare supermicron particles such as bacterial cells, fungal spores and pollen grains. However, it is not clear that there are sufficient numbers of these particles in the atmosphere to strongly influence clouds. Here we show that the ice-nucleating activity of a fungus from the ubiquitous genus Fusarium is related to the presence of nanometre-scale particles which are far more numerous, and therefore potentially far more important for cloud glaciation than whole intact spores or hyphae. In addition, we quantify the ice-nucleating activity of nano-ice nucleating particles (nano-INPs) washed off pollen and also show that nano-INPs are present in a soil sample. Based on these results, we suggest that there is a reservoir of biological nano-INPs present in the environment which may, for example, become aerosolised in association with fertile soil dust particles.

Detecting unidentified changes

Does becoming aware of a change to a purely visual stimulus necessarily cause the observer to be able to identify or localise the change or can change detection occur in the absence of identification or localisation? Several theories of visual awareness stress that we are aware of more than just the few objects to which we attend. In particular, it is clear that to some extent we are also aware of the global properties of the scene, such as the mean luminance or the distribution of spatial frequencies. It follows that we may be able to detect a change to a visual scene by detecting a change to one or more of these global properties. However, detecting a change to global property may not supply us with enough information to accurately identify or localise which object in the scene has been changed. Thus, it may be possible to reliably detect the occurrence of changes without being able to identify or localise what has changed. Previous attempts to show that this can occur with natural images have produced mixed results. Here we use a novel analysis technique to provide additional evidence that changes can be detected in natural images without also being identified or localised. It is likely that this occurs by the observers monitoring the global properties of the scene.

Ice nucleation by particles immersed in supercooled cloud droplets

The formation of ice particles in the Earth's atmosphere strongly affects the properties of clouds and their impact on climate. Despite the importance of ice formation in determining the properties of clouds, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) was unable to assess the impact of atmospheric ice formation in their most recent report because our basic knowledge is insufficient. Part of the problem is the paucity of quantitative information on the ability of various atmospheric aerosol species to initiate ice formation. Here we review and assess the existing quantitative knowledge of ice nucleation by particles immersed within supercooled water droplets. We introduce aerosol species which have been identified in the past as potentially important ice nuclei and address their ice-nucleating ability when immersed in a supercooled droplet. We focus on mineral dusts, biological species (pollen, bacteria, fungal spores and plankton), carbonaceous combustion products and volcanic ash. In order to make a quantitative comparison we first introduce several ways of describing ice nucleation and then summarise the existing information according to the time-independent (singular) approximation. Using this approximation in combination with typical atmospheric loadings, we estimate the importance of ice nucleation by different aerosol types. According to these estimates we find that ice nucleation below about -15 °C is dominated by soot and mineral dusts. Above this temperature the only materials known to nucleate ice are biological, with quantitative data for other materials absent from the literature. We conclude with a summary of the challenges our community faces.

Structural insights into the evolution of the pantothenate-biosynthesis pathway

Pantothenate is synthesized in bacteria, fungi and plants, and as vitamin B5 is a dietary requirement in animals. The three-dimensional structures of the four Escherichia coli enzymes involved in the production of pantothenate have been determined. We describe the use of comparative analyses of the sequences and structures to identify distant homologues of the four enzymes in an attempt to understand the evolution of the pathway. We conclude that it is likely to have evolved via a patchwork mechanism, whereby the individual enzymes were recruited separately.

Identification of Tyr58 as the proton donor in the aspartate-alpha-decarboxylase reaction

The decarboxylation of L-aspartate by E. coli L-aspartate-alpha-decarboxylase (ADC) is shown to occur with retention of configuration; analysis of the protein structure identifies Tyr58 as the proton donor in the decarboxylation mechanism.

Functional analysis and treatment of bizarre speech

Contingencies maintaining the bizarre speech of a 29-year-old woman with mild mental retardation and schizophrenia were analysed. Bizarre vocalizations occurred most frequently during demand conditions and least frequently during one-to-one interaction with attention contingent upon appropriate vocalizations. Treatment conditions derived from the assessment consisted of guided compliance and ignoring plus contingent attention. Treatment effects generalized to direct-care staff in day and residential settings. Analysis of the variables controlling bizarre speech facilitated development of interventions that were predominantly positive in nature, based on the specific and unique controlling behavior-environment interactions, and that were teachable to the direct-care staff.