Light-Sensitive Ruthenium Complex-Loaded Cross-linked Polymeric Nanoassemblies for the Treatment of Cancer

This work focuses on improving the efficacy of photoactivatable Ru complexes for photodynamic therapy by employing cross-linked nanoassemblies (CNAs) as a delivery approach. The effects of complex photoactivation, hydrophobicity, and solution ionic strength and pH on complex loading and release from CNAs were analyzed. The cell cytotoxicity of CNA formulations was similar to free Ru complexes despite reduced or eliminated DNA interactions. The release rate and the amount of each Ru complex released (%) varied inversely with complex hydrophobicity, while the effect of solution ionic strength was dependent on complex hydrophobicity. Premature release of two photoactivatable prodrugs prior to irradiation was believed to account for higher activity in cells studies compared to DNA interaction studies; however, for photostable ¹O₂ generator-loaded CNAs this cannot explain the high cytotoxicity and lack of DNA interactions because release was incomplete after 48 hrs. The cause remains unclear, but among other possibilities, accelerated release in a cell culture environment may be responsible.

Gambling: the psychology of a non-drug compulsion

In 1968 an editorial in the British Medical Journal rejected the view that compulsive or pathological gambling should be included under the rubric of illness. Exactly 20 years later an invited paper to the same journal noted that the problem was an addictive behaviour or dependency disorder and listed the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic criteria. The following review critically evaluates some of the key conceptual and research developments during the intervening period.

Structure-activity and immunochemical data provide evidence of developmental- and tissue-specific myosuppressin signaling

Myosuppressin peptides dramatically diminish contractions of the gut and heart. Thus, delineating mechanisms involved in myosuppressin signaling may provide insight into peptidergic control of muscle contractility. Drosophila myosuppressin (DMS, TDVDHVFLRFamide) structure-activity relationship (SAR) was investigated to identify an antagonist and explore signaling. Alanyl-substituted, N-terminal truncated, and modified amino acid analogs identified residues and peptide length required for activity. Immunochemistry independently provided insight into myosuppressin mechanisms. DMS decreased gut motility and cardiac contractility dose dependently; the different effective concentrations at half maximal-response were indicative of tissue-specific mechanisms. Replacement of aspartic acid 2 (D2) generated an analog with different developmental- and tissue-specific effects; [A2] DMS mimicked DMS in adult gut (100% inhibition), yet decreased larval gut contractions by only 32% with increased potency in pupal heart (126% inhibition). The DMS active core differed across development and in tissues; adult (DHVFLRFamide) and larval gut (TDVDHVFLRFamide), and adult (VFLRFamide) and pupal heart (VFLRFamide). Substitution of D2 and D4 with a modified amino acid, p-benzoyl-phenylalanine, produced developmental- and tissue-specific antagonists. In the presence of protease inhibitors, DMS and VFLRFamide were more effective in adult gut, but lower or unchanged in pupal heart compared to peptide or analog alone, respectively. DMS-specific antisera stained neurons that innervated the gut or heart. This study describes novel antagonists and data to identify developmental- and tissue-specific mechanisms underlying the pleotropic effects of myosuppressin in muscle physiology.

Females' coping styles and control over poker machine gambling

An investigation of the relationship between impaired control over gambling, coping strategies, and demographic variables was conducted by surveying female poker machine players (N = 163) in their gaming venues. Metropolitan (n = 14) and regional (n = 6) gaming venues in Victoria, Australia participated. Control over gambling was measured using the Impaired Control Over Gambling Scale (Baron & Dickerson, 1994). Coping strategies were measured using (Folkman et al., 1986) adaptation of the Revised Ways of Coping Checklist (Vitaliano et al., 1985). MANOVA supported the hypothesis that the lower the control over gambling the greater the reliance on emotion-focused coping (blamed self, wishful thinking, avoidance) with F = 9.92, 13.35, 14.04 respectively, all significant at p <.001. MANOVA failed to supported the hypothesis that problem-focused strategies (problem focus, seek social support) would be significantly related to control over gambling with F =.82 and.21 respectively. Control over gambling was not related to age, employment, relationship status, education, or distress from significant life events, further supporting the relationship between control and coping strategies. Ways in which coping styles might be related to pathological gambling are discussed.

Definition and measurement of chasing in off-course betting and gaming machine play

The attempt to recover gambling losses by continuing to gamble ('chasing') has featured prominently in accounts of excessive gambling. This research represents the first attempt to operationalize and measure chasing in terms of its cognitive (behavioral intention), emotive (urges) and behavioral components, and to investigate the role of chasing in relation to impaired control over gambling. Two survey samples of 84 male off-course (betting shop) race gamblers (mean age 41, SD = 15) and 137 gaming machine players (73 females, mean age 48, SD = 15 and 64 males, mean age 43, SD = 16) were recruited at gambling venues. Respondents completed a structured questionnaire that investigated retrospective report of chasing and an impaired control scale ("The Scale of Gambling Choices"). It was found that the various components of chasing formed a composite measure with high internal reliability that was strongly related to indicators of excessive gambling (e.g. time spent gambling, expenditure as a proportion of income) and to impaired control scores. Reacting to large wins by further betting was almost as strongly related to impaired control as was persistence after losing. Those who returned later to chase had significantly higher impaired control scores than those who only chased within a session. Alcohol-related chasing was associated with impaired control over gambling. Chasing of losses and impaired control appear to be generic processes in evidence across both forms of gambling and gender (most format and sex differences were of minor significance).

Alcohol Consumption and Self-Control of Gambling Behaviour

This paper reports the results of a preliminary investigation into whether the drinking of alcohol contributes to impaired control of gambling behaviour. The sampling method consisted of a two-phase survey design, collecting data both prospectively 'within session' and retrospectively via a take-home questionnaire. One hundred sixteen people were interviewed while in a gaming venue playing on an electronic gaming machine (egm) of whom 34 men and 11 women also returned take-home surveys. Comparisons of the sample to previous studies suggested that the sample was representative of the population of egm players. Results indicated a consistent theme of alcohol use contributing significantly to impaired control of gambling behaviour, with level of involvement (Corless & Dickerson, 1989) contributing the most significant variance in the independent variables. Limitations of the study are discussed, but the case is argued that this type of 'process' research is essential in better understanding how these two types of popular leisure activities may interact, possibly leading to the previously recorded chronic, excessive alcohol intake and problematic gambling (e.g. McCormick, Russo, Ramirez & Taber, 1984).

Impaired control over gambling in gaming machine and off-course gamblers

AIM

To investigate and compare subjectively reported impaired control in two forms of gambling: off-course Totalizator Agency Board (TAB) horse/dog racing and electronic gaming machines (EGMs). Additionally, gender differences in EGM play were investigated.

DESIGN

A survey sample of 84 male TAB gamblers and 137 EGM players (73 females and 64 males) was recruited at gambling sites.

SETTING

Hotels and clubs in Adelaide, South Australia, were used as recruiting venues. Interviews were either conducted on site if there was sufficient privacy, or relocated to nearby cafes.

PARTICIPANTS

The inclusion criteria were gambling at least weekly and being over the age of 18. Female off-course gamblers were not approached given their scarcity.

MEASUREMENTS

A general gambling involvement questionnaire was devised from pilot research. Impaired control was measured using a shortened version of The Scale of Gambling Choices.

FINDINGS

Impaired control over gambling has a robust factor structure, with little difference between EGM and TAB gamblers. Concurrent validity for the impaired control measure was demonstrated against measures of gambling involvement.

CONCLUSION

Impaired control appears to be, in the main, a generic process across these two forms of gambling and for both sexes. Further refinement and application of the concept of impaired control to excessive gambling seems warranted given its strong face, construct and concurrent validity.

Attentional bias and addictive behaviour: automaticity in a gambling-specific modified Stroop task

AIMS

This study examined the relationship between attention and gambling behaviour by measuring the level of Stroop interference towards gambling-related words in a group of regular poker machine players.

DESIGN

A 3 x 2 repeated measures experimental design was employed. The type of word presented (neutral, drug or gambling) was the within-subjects factor and the level of impaired control (high or low) over gambling behaviour was the between-subjects factor.

PARTICIPANTS

A sample of poker machine players (n = 60), varying in their frequency of play, were split into two groups based on their level of subjective impaired control over their gambling behaviour (high or low).

MEASUREMENTS

A computerized gambling-specific modified version of the Stroop task was used to assess response latencies. The test comprised three word categories: gambling, drug and neutral. The Scale of Gambling Choices (SGC) was used to assess participants' level of impaired control over gambling behaviour.

FINDINGS

It was found that the participants who had difficulty in controlling their gambling behaviour (the low control group) took significantly longer to name the colour of the words relating to poker machine gambling, whereas those who had good control over their gambling behaviour (the high control group) did not show any significant differences across the three word categories.

CONCLUSIONS

Results support the previous finding that people with a problem behaviour or emotion take longer to colour-name words relating to the area of their concern. The current study extends previous work that has investigated the role of cognitive distortions and biases in the area of addictive behaviour. The current study confirms McCusker & Gettings's findings, but by avoiding the mental disorder conceptualization facilitates theoretical understanding of addictive behaviour. Implications for past models and theories of the Stroop as well as future research directions are discussed.

Induced mood and persistence at gaming

AIMS

Using the affect infusion model (AIM), this study aimed to assess the impact of prior mood on gaming persistence in regular and non-regular gamblers (assumed to be motivated and heuristic decision-makers, respectively). DESIGN, MEASURES AND SETTING: A 2 x 3 experimental design in a laboratory setting employed factors of gambler type (regular, non-regular) and prior mood (happy, neutral, depressed). Measures were number of trials played on a gambling game, and mood ratings (post-mood induction, during and after play).

PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS

Sixty regular and 60 non-regular gamblers (all male students) were assigned randomly to watch a video inducing one of the three mood conditions. They were then given AUD$10.00 to gamble in a computerized card-cutting game.

FINDINGS

AIM predictions were supported: prior mood did not affect gaming persistence for regular gamblers, but non-regulars showed reduced persistence across happy, neutral and depressed moods. After-play mood ratings were related to winnings for regulars, and losing regulars were significantly more unhappy after-play compared to during-play, and compared to both their winning counterparts and non-regulars. Mood and winnings were unrelated for non-regulars, with little during- to after-play mood change.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings speak to depression as a causal factor in addictive gambling. Depressed mood did not enhance persistence in regular gamblers, but rather failed to have the inhibitory effect observed in non-regular gamblers. Evidence of mood changes during gambling was obtained, although multiple measures (self-report, physiological indicators, anticipated states) of both affective valence and arousal are advocated for future studies.

Contemporary issues and future directions for research into pathological gambling

The recent healthy increase in research into all aspects of gambling is noted. The dominant theme accounting for most of this research is the mental disorder model of pathological gambling and measures that have been derived from this conceptualization. It is suggested that an alternative approach focusing on the construct of choice or subjective control over gambling may be a research direction that will ensure that progress is maintained. In this paper a context for the discussion is provided by first identifying briefly fundamental conceptual and methodological issues associated with the mental disorder model. In particular it is argued that the heterogeneity of the diagnosis of pathological gambling makes the research task of assessing truly independent variables extremely difficult. Subsequently an illustrative schema is presented that demonstrates both the potential advantages and some of the complexities associated with the dependent variable of self-control over gambling behaviour. The main advantages are argued to be (a) the focus of research is narrowed to one potential cause of harmful impacts rather than the great diversity of impacts themselves, (b) prospective studies of regular gamblers in real gambling venues may be a key source of insight into the development of pathological gambling and (c) it promotes the development of theoretical links with the mainstream of the discipline of psychology. Despite the conceptual difficulties that may be associated with the variable of self-control, it is suggested that these may be overcome because contemporary research into the addictive behaviours has demonstrated considerable success in the definition and measurement of control and related themes such as craving, restraint and temptation.

An experimental study of the effect of prior alcohol consumption on a simulated gambling activity

Previous survey research with both clinical populations and random samples of the general population has established that individuals may experience harmful impacts arising from both their gambling and their consumption of alcohol. Experimental study of the interaction of alcohol consumption on gambling is notable for its absence from the literature.

AIM

To experimentally study the interaction of alcohol consumption and gambling behaviour.

DESIGN

Participants were randomly allocated into two groups--placebo administered and alcohol administered, thus making an independent samples experimental design.

SETTING

Laboratory.

PARTICIPANTS

Forty young, male, regular EGM players, who also regularly consumed alcohol.

MEASUREMENTS

The NEO Personality Inventory; The Scale of Gambling Choices (Revised) (SGC); persistence at gambling while losing, as measured by the number of gambling trials played and amount wagered.

FINDINGS

Subjects either received a prior intake of three alcoholic drinks each containing approximately 10 g of pure alcohol (beer or wine) or an equal volume of an equivalent non-alcoholic beverage. The alcohol group persisted for twice as many gaming trials as the placebo group with significantly more players who had consumed alcohol losing all their original cash stake (50% compared with 15% of the placebo group).

CONCLUSIONS

The consumption of alcohol appeared to eliminate the strong associations found in placebo group between individual difference measures and persistence. The analogue game was accepted by participants as a valid form of gambling. The result showed that relatively small quantities of alcohol have a significant effect on the psychological processes that underpin self-control over gambling. This finding challenges the conceptual research paradigm of studying co-morbidity or dual-addicted clinical populations as the most appropriate method of understanding how two addictive behaviours interact.

The effects of distraction on desensitization and reprocessing

The present analogue study of seventy-two students with mild spider anxiety assessed the role of distraction in the desensitization and reprocessing of aversive information. Accessing different components of Baddeley's model of short-term memory, three treatment groups involving distraction tasks and one control group maintaining focussed exposure were compared in a pre-test post-test experimental design. The results indicated that all groups experienced a similar reduction in both self-report and heart-rate measures of anxiety. However, at the follow up phase, the groups containing a distraction task showed an increase in anxiety levels significantly greater than that for the control condition. No differences were reported between any of the distraction groups.

The Harlem family model: a unique approach to the treatment of tuberculosis

With the increased incidence of tuberculosis and especially of resistant cases in the United States, directly observed therapy as a mechanism for ensuring completion of therapy has been advocated. This mechanism has been primarily pioneered and utilized in developing countries. Few models have been tailored to specific patient populations in this country. At Harlem Hospital, in recognition of the special needs and characteristics of our patients with tuberculosis, we have developed a unique program. This program revolves around a family model with all components of the program contributing to the cohesiveness of all the program participants and staff. In the brief period since its inception, the program has been successful in enrolling and retaining a large number of patients with tuberculosis.

Pharmacologic activity of CI-977, a selective kappa opioid agonist, in rhesus monkeys

CI-977 is a selective, nonpeptide kappa opioid agonist. In rhesus monkeys, CI-977 is a potent antinociceptive agent against thermal stimuli after i.m. administration. Increasing the intensity of the nociceptive stimulus can reduce the analgesic activity of CI-977. Antinociceptive activity also was seen when PD 126212, containing CI-977 as the (-)-enantiomer, was administered sublingually. Naloxone antagonized the antinociceptive action of CI-977, demonstrating opiate receptor involvement in this activity. Monkeys treated with CI-977 also showed sedation at doses close to those required to produce antinociception. As with morphine, the sedative properties of CI-977 were associated with impaired cognitive performance. Aged monkeys appeared more sensitive than young monkeys to the performance-impairing effect of CI-977. Tolerance developed to the antinociceptive and response-suppressing effects. CI-977 was approximately 1000 times more potent than morphine as an analgesic when tested against a moderate (50 degrees C) thermal stimulus but less effective than morphine against a strong (55 degrees C) thermal stimulus.

On the determinants of persistent gambling behaviour. I. High-frequency poker machine players

Persistent gambling was studied as a function of the reinforcement of arousal and winning during normal poker machine playing sessions. Play rate, heart rate, winnings, subjective excitement and expectations of winning were recorded for five male and five female high-frequency players. Autoregressive regression analysis indicated that wins affect play rate for up to three minutes, while effects of the other variables were inconsistent. Markov chain analysis confirmed that wins smaller than 50 credits tend to elevate play rate, while larger wins cause a breakdown in the otherwise very regular rate of play. Results are discussed in relation to the development of impaired control of gambling behaviour.

On the determinants of persistent gambling. III. Personality, prior mood, and poker machine play

Sixty-four poker machine players were observed in the ecologically valid setting of their social club while completing a session of play. Subjects were assessed by interview, the Profile of Mood States, and personality measures. Personality scores did not predict level of involvement in gambling, session duration, or persistence when losing. High-frequency players were generally more predictable than other players, with over 70% of the variance of session duration accounted for by predictor variables. Also for this group of players, persistence when losing was significantly accounted for by prior mood and cognitions concerning win size.

Gamblers' self-perceptions of the determinants of impaired control

Impaired control occupies a focal position in the medical model perspective of pathological gambling and is central to the concept of addictive processes generally. Nonetheless there have been few studies on self-control in gambling behaviour. A questionnaire was developed to measure subjectively assessed self-control in poker machine players. This Self-Control Scale comprised a framework adopted from Cameron (1985) distinguishing between (i) the likelihood of starting a session and continuing a session, and (ii) internal and external determinants. The Scale and a descriptive questionnaire on demographics and actual gambling behaviour was administered to 26 problem gamblers and 40 players of different levels of involvement. The results indicated that the Scale had acceptable internal consistency and validity. The Scale effectively discriminated between problem and non-problem players. The differences on specific items between low-frequency, high-frequency and problem groups were incorporated into a hypothetical developmental progression. Negative emotions such as frustration and depression and the belief in chasing (Lesieur, 1979, 1984) were perceived to be the most significant determinants of impaired control problem gamblers.

Intrusive unwanted thoughts: a two-stage model of control

It was proposed that the greater time taken to dismiss intrusive compared with neutral thoughts is better explained in terms of a decreased ability to disattend to the intrusive thought than a decreased ability to access a more pleasant replacement thought. A study of 43 subjects with 'normal obsessions' using a methodology that controlled the valence and content of replacement thoughts provided support for this disattention hypothesis.

Sex therapy outcome research: a reappraisal of methodology. 1. A treatment study of male sexual dysfunction

In the first section a controlled treatment study of male sexual dysfunction is described. 'Unlucky' randomization of subjects yielded treatment groups which differed with respect to variables of possible prognostic significance. Hence the results are largely uninterpretable. In the second section the predominantly negative or inconsistent findings in sex therapy outcome research are reviewed and methodological problems, such as those described in the first part, are considered as possible reasons for these negative findings. The interrelationships are explored between small treatment groups, prognostic variability, bias, power, and small expected treatment effects. A strategy for future research is proposed, with particular emphasis on the recognition and use of relevant prognostic indices.

Acute tentorial subdural hematoma as a false-positive in indium-111 leukocyte scintigraphy

A case of acute tentorial subdural hematoma detected by In-111 leukocyte scintigraphy and confirmed by CT brain scan is herein described. White blood cells are an integral part of the blood pool and labeled white cells freely leave the intravascular space in case of active bleeding. Acute hemorrhage and hematoma can thus be a cause of a false-positive study.

Demonstration of a false-positive lesion on indium-111 leukocyte scintigraphy in a case of active Crohn's disease

Increased fecal excretion of In-111 tagged leukocytes in patients with active inflammatory bowel disease may lead to a false-positive site of disease in patients with a diverting colostomy or ileostomy and fecal collection bags that overlie the abdominal wall or groin region.