Outcomes of children born to mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus exposed to hydroxychloroquine or azathioprine

OBJECTIVES

HCQ and AZA are used to control disease activity and reduce risk of flare during pregnancy in patients with SLE. The aim of this study was to determine the outcomes of children born to mothers with SLE exposed to HCQ or AZA during pregnancy and breast-feeding.

METHODS

Women attending UK specialist lupus clinics with children ≤17 years old, born after SLE diagnosis, were recruited to this retrospective study. Data were collected using questionnaires and from clinical record review. Factors associated with the outcomes of low birth weight and childhood infection were determined using multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression models.

RESULTS

We analysed 284 live births of 199 mothers from 10 UK centres. The first pregnancies of 73.9% of mothers (147/199) were captured in the study; (60.4%) (150/248) and 31.1% (87/280) children were exposed to HCQ and AZA, respectively. There were no significant differences in the frequency of congenital malformations or intrauterine growth restriction between children exposed or not to HCQ or AZA. AZA use was increased in women with a history of hypertension or renal disease. Although AZA was associated with low birth weight in univariate models, there was no significant association in multivariable models. In adjusted models, exposure to AZA was associated with increased reports of childhood infection requiring hospital management [odds ratio 2.283 (1.003, 5.198), P = 0.049].

CONCLUSIONS

There were no significant negative outcomes in children exposed to HCQ in pregnancy. AZA use was associated with increased reporting of childhood infection, which warrants further study.

The cost of care of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in the UK: annual direct costs for adult SLE patients with active autoantibody-positive disease

Objectives

The aim of the Systemic LUpus Erythematosus Cost of Care In Europe (LUCIE) study was to evaluate the annual direct medical costs of managing adults with active autoantibody-positive disease on medication for SLE in secondary care. This paper presents the UK analyses only.

Methods

A cost-of-illness study was conducted from the perspective of the National Health Service. Health resource utilization data were retrieved over a two-year period from four centres in England and unit cost data were taken from published sources.

Results

At baseline, 86 patients were included, 38 (44.2%) had severe SLE and 48 (55.8%) had non-severe SLE. The mean (SD) SELENA-SLEDAI score was 7.7 (5.7). The mean (SD) annual direct medical cost of was estimated at £3231 (£2333) per patient and was 2.2 times higher in patients with severe SLE compared with patients with non-severe SLE ( p < 0.001). Multivariate model analyses showed that renal disease involvement ( p = 0.0016) and severe flares ( p = 0.0001) were associated with higher annual direct costs.

Conclusions

Improvement of the overall stability of SLE and early intervention to minimize the impact of renal disease may be two approaches to mitigate the long-term direct cost of managing SLE patients in the UK.

Novel treatments for systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that is associated with the production of autoantibodies, and with considerable morbidity and mortality. There has been much interest in developing more specific therapies for this disease, which is currently managed with immunosuppressive drugs, predominantly corticosteroids, azathioprine, methotrexate and cyclophosphamide, in combination with hydroxychloroquine. Mycophenolate mofetil has been demonstrated to be as efficacious as cyclophosphamide in patients with lupus nephritis, and is being used increasingly in the clinic despite not being licensed for this indication. Novel methods of reducing autoantibody formation in SLE include the use of mAbs that modulate and/or deplete B-cells (anti-CD22 and anti-CD20 antibodies, respectively), or that interfere with the stimulatory effects of the soluble factor B-lymphocyte stimulator (anti-BLys antibodies). Alternative approaches include the use of atacicept (Merck Serono), a transmembrane activator and calcium modulator ligand interactor (TACI)-Ig fusion protein, which inhibits B-cell stimulation by binding to BLys and a profileration-inducing ligand (APRIL), or toleragens such as abetimus. Blocking costimulatory molecule interactions, such as the CD40-CD40 ligand interaction with mAbs and the CD28-B7 interaction with a soluble cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4)-IgG1 construct (abatacept), has also been attempted as a therapeutic strategy for SLE. The most promising strategy for a new drug for SLE is belimumab (Human Genome Sciences/GlaxoSmithKline), an anti-BLys antibody, as two phase III clinical trials with this drug recently met their primary endpoints. In this review, these novel approaches to the treatment of SLE, including the potential of targeting cytokine pathways involved in autoimmunity, are discussed.

Lupus and cancer

Individuals with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have an increased susceptibility to certain types of cancer. Of particular concern are haematologic malignancies, specifically non-Hodgkin lymphoma, where a three- to four-fold increased risk is seen in SLE, compared with the general population. There is some evidence that immunosuppressive exposures play a role, although there appear to be other factors driving the risk. Lupus disease activity, with resultant dysregulated lymphocyte proliferation, may itself be a mediator of the association between SLE and lymphoma. Aside from haematologic malignancy risk, lung cancer also is increased in SLE compared with the general population, and smoking likely drives this risk in large part. Last but not least, cervical dysplasia is a concern in women with SLE, particularly with exposure to immunosuppressants; routine screening for this complication should not be neglected.

Pregnancy and rheumatic diseases

Pregnancy is an issue that should be discussed with all patients with rheumatic diseases who are in the reproductive age group. Infertility is rarely due to the disease but can be associated with cyclophosphamide therapy. Most rheumatic diseases that are well controlled prior to pregnancy do not deteriorate in pregnancy, providing that the patient continues with appropriate disease-modifying therapy. Some patients with inflammatory arthritis go in to remission during pregnancy. Patients with renal involvement may be at increased risk of disease flare. This needs to be distinguished from pre-eclampsia. Intrauterine growth restriction is more likely in patients with active systemic disease, hypertension, a history of thrombosis and renal involvement. Premature delivery may need to be planned to reduce the risks of stillbirth and can be associated with a variety of neonatal complications. Post-partum flare is common in all the rheumatic diseases.