Childhood emotional maltreatment and sensitivity to social rejection in emerging adults

BACKGROUND

Enhanced responsiveness to social rejection may be a transdiagnostic mechanism through which childhood emotional maltreatment predisposes individuals to interpersonal and mental health problems. To investigate this mechanism, as a first step, more detailed investigations are needed regarding the assumed association of childhood emotional maltreatment with rejection sensitivity in later life.

OBJECTIVE

The present work examines the hypothesis that among different subtypes of childhood maltreatment, in particular forms of emotional maltreatment (emotional abuse and neglect) relate to rejection sensitivity in emerging adults.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

In study 1, 311 emerging adults (18-25 years) participated in a retrospective cross-sectional assessment. In study 2, 78 emerging adults (18-25 years) were included in an experiment (O-Cam paradigm) which involved the experience of social rejection (vs. inclusion).

METHODS

Study 1 investigates whether intensities of childhood emotional abuse and neglect have unique associations with trait rejection sensitivity, when considering all maltreatment subtypes (emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect) simultaneously. Study 2 examined whether childhood emotional abuse and neglect moderate the experience of social rejection in terms of need depletion, sadness and anger after social rejection (vs. inclusion).

RESULTS

Study 1 indicates that emotional abuse and neglect have unique associations with rejection sensitivity. Study 2 results show that only a higher intensity of emotional abuse has extensive effects on need depletion and sadness after social rejection (vs. inclusion).

CONCLUSIONS

In particular, experiences of childhood emotional abuse may relate to rejection sensitivity in young adulthood.

Better safe than sorry: Oxytocin shifts the regulatory focus

Oxytocin (OT) is known to play a major role in social cognition and behavior. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether OT also affects the motivational system, specifically, the regulatory focus. Because OT weakens the self- and promotes the other-bias, we hypothesized that OT would decrease promotion focus and increase prevention focus. To test this, we conducted two experiments. In each, male participants intranasally administered OT or a placebo and assessed their regulatory focus using validated paradigms. Results revealed that OT led to an increase of prevention focus (Studies 1 and 2) and a slight but non-significant decrease of promotion focus (Study 2). Thus, participants under OT (vs. placebo) saw potential losses as more important, while they tended to devaluate potential gains. This was unrelated to the perceived likelihood of success. These findings indicate that OT might provide adaption to the social environment by pursuing a vigilant motivational strategy.

Ostracism and suggestibility: how temporary cognitive deficits drive suggestibility after ostracism

Interrogative suggestibility has been suggested to grow in situations of isolation. The current study aimed to test this assumption for the first time in an experimental approach. We hypothesized that ostracism increases suggestibility, and assumed this relationship to be mediated by cognitive impairments or social uncertainty. To test these hypotheses, we conducted two studies. We manipulated the state of ostracism (vs. inclusion) using the O-Cam (Study 1) and Cyberball paradigm (Study 2), and measured suggestibility using the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale. Results revealed an indirect link between inclusionary status and suggestibility. More precisely, there was no direct relationship between ostracism and suggestibility. However, ostracism induced weaker cognitive performances and this translated to increased suggestibility. Social uncertainty, on the other hand, did not serve as effective mediator. These findings indicate that each situation that is accompanied by (temporary) cognitive impairments, as is ostracism, might have the power to raise interrogative suggestibility.

When ostracism is mandated: COVID-19, social distancing, and psychological needs

Social distancing to limit the spread of COVID-19 poses a unique psychological challenge, especially in light of evidence for the importance of even minimal cues of inclusion. In a German (N = 546) and a US (N = 199) sample, we examined the impact of work-related social distancing on the outcomes of ostracism, measuring need fulfillment in self-esteem, belonging, control, and meaning. Overall, social distancing was associated with decreased need fulfillment. German participants reported a higher need fulfillment compared to American participants. Compared to previous studies, social distancing impacted self-related need fulfillment less than experimental manipulations of ostracism, however more so than the baseline condition of inclusion. Working, while social distancing was associated with greater need fulfillment, as was identifying as male. Women reported lower need fulfillment overall and this difference was mediated by the need to belong. Results are discussed in terms of understanding self-related needs in different contexts of isolation.

Regaining power: How feelings of exclusion during COVID-19 are associated with radicalism among critics of containment policies

Past experimental research has shown that social exclusion can be linked with radicalism. During the COVID-19 pandemic, feelings of social isolation and loneliness rose, just like protests and violence against national anti-COVID-19 measures did. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that feelings of exclusion induced by measures to contain the spread of COVID-19 were associated with radicalism intentions to illegally and violently fight COVID-19-related regulations among critics of the containment policies (Hypothesis 1). Moreover, we expected that radicalism intentions against COVID-19-related regulations fortified needs deprived by social exclusion (Hypothesis 2). Studying a sample of individuals who opposed the measures to contain the spread of COVID-19 (N = 171), we found evidence for both hypotheses: Results revealed that feelings of social exclusion induced by COVID-19 containment measures predicted radicalism intentions. Moreover, the relationship between exclusion and radicalism was associated with fortifying power issues. Political opinion did not moderate these effects. These data replicate the exclusion-radicalism link in the COVID-19 crisis and add one more factor that may have promoted radical developments during that time. Fortifying feelings of power, radicalism appeared to foster well-being, though at a high political price.

How group processes push excluded people into a radical mindset: An experimental investigation

Social exclusion is a condition that seems to allow terrorism to flourish. Since radicalization is argued to occur mostly in the context of group identification and accompanying processes, we hypothesized that these may contribute to pushing excluded individuals toward radicalism. To investigate this, we performed four studies. In Studies 1 to 3, we conducted experiments in which we manipulated exclusion (vs. inclusion), created new in-groups, and measured radicalism intentions in the context of eco- or animal rights extremism. In Study 4, we tested the focal variables in a reanalysis of coded qualitative data on an Islamist sample. In Study 1, the exclusion–radicalism link revealed to be mediated by in-group sympathy as opposed to out-group antipathy. Studies 2 to 4 specifically identified perceived group threat as a driver of radicalism in the aftermath of exclusion. This work provides first experimental evidence for the catalyzing power of relationships in the exclusion–radicalism link.

Does oxytocin shield against negative effects of ostracism? A replication and extension

Evidence collected in recent years suggests that OT can alleviate negative consequences of ostracism. However, it is unclear whether this effect requires favorable dispositions. Moreover, research is needed to replicate previous findings. We thus investigated whether a combination of OT and potentially leveraging traits shields against negative effects of ostracism in a direct and conceptual replication of previous work. Seventy-seven males, who varied on potential moderating features, were administered OT or a placebo, and were ostracized or included in the Cyberball paradigm. Results showed that OT tended to attenuate the drop in social comfort in response to ostracism, and induced participants, particularly those high in horizontal collectivism, to toss the ball more often toward an approaching co-player who had ostracized them earlier. Attachment avoidance did not moderate these effects. Thus, the study replicated OT's relieving effects on ostracism, but provided only partial support for the leveraging influence of person factors.

Out of the dark, into the light: The impact of social exclusion on judgments of darkness and brightness

Based on theories of grounded cognition, we assumed that the experience of social exclusion is grounded in a concept of darkness. Specifically, we hypothesized that social exclusion causes perceptual judgments of darkness and a preference for brightness as a compensatory response. To investigate these hypotheses, we conducted four studies using different manipulations and measurements. In Studies 1a and 1b, excluded participants judged a picturized room as darker and drew more attention to its brightest part than included participants. In Study 2, excluded participants judged a surface as darker and decided for brighter clothing than included participants. In Study 3, excluded participants judged their lab room as darker and expressed a higher preference for brightness than included participants. Providing consistent support for our hypotheses, these findings confirm the idea that the experience of social exclusion is grounded in multiple ways that share a common representational system.

Oxytocin promotes action prediction

The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) has been suggested to facilitate social cognition and behavior. As predicting others' behavior is at the core of human social-cognitive abilities and is indispensable for successful social interaction, we hypothesized that OT would increase action prediction. To test this hypothesis, 61 male and female healthy participants self-administered OT or placebo intranasally and their anticipatory eye-movements were recorded using eye-tracking techniques. We found that the ability to predict others' future actions was enhanced following OT treatment. This effect was mediated by the time to the first anticipatory eye-movement suggesting that improved action prediction might operate by increased attention to social cues. These findings provide direct evidence for the role of OT in promoting perception and processing of social cues.

Ostracism drives group moralization and extreme group behavior

Sharing beliefs, particularly moral beliefs, is a way to establish social connections. We hypothesized that ostracism leads people who are high in the need to belong to adhere to the moral beliefs of an ingroup, and that moralizing the beliefs of one's group increases the willingness to endorse extreme behavior on behalf of the group. Across two studies, participants were ostracized or included, rated the moral relevance of their group values, and indicated their endorsement of extreme behavior on behalf of the group. Across studies, ostracism increased group moralization in participants high in the need to belong. In Study 2, group moralization translated into endorsement of extreme behavior. Our findings suggest that morality serves a binding function that may be channeled into extreme behaviors. (120 words).

Oxytocin strengthens the link between provocation and aggression among low anxiety people

Oxytocin (OT) not only modulates positive social interactions but also affects negative ones. Several studies have established a link between OT and aggression. However, they also resulted in an inconsistent picture and showed methodological issues. The current studies aimed to address these lacks and test the hypothesis that OT increases provocation-induced aggression in people low in anxiety. Therefore, two studies with 56 males (Study 1) as well as 40 females and 24 males (Study 2) were conducted. After responding to a trait anxiety questionnaire, participants self-administered OT or a placebo. Thereafter, provocation was manipulated by rejecting vs. accepting (Study 1) or insulting vs. accepting (Study 2) the participants by real human counterparts. Aggressive behavior was quantified by measuring how much hot sauce (Study 1) or unpleasant blasts of white noise (Study 2) participants delivered to their opponents, using two classic aggression paradigms. Both studies provided evidence that OT promotes aggression in response to provocation in low anxiety people which was not the case with no provocation or in high anxiety people. These findings confirm the idea that OT can be involved in the creation of aggressive behavior when accounting for situational and dispositional features.

Interkulturelle Unterschiede im Erleben und Verhalten nach sozialer Exkludierung

Zusammenfassung. Soziale Exkludierung, von anderen entfernt gehalten zu werden, zieht schwerwiegende psychische und physische Reaktionen nach sich. Wie stark allerdings Menschen von sozialer Exkludierung bedroht sind, hängt von verschiedenen Faktoren ab. Im vorliegenden Forschungsartikel wird der Frage nachgegangen, inwiefern kulturelle Unterschiede das Erleben sozialer Exkludierung beeinflussen. Die aktuelle Forschung zeigt, dass Personen mit kollektivistischem Hintergrund von Exkludierung weniger psychologisch beeinträchtigt sind als Personen mit individualistischem Hintergrund, weil sie als weniger bedrohlich und destabilisierend wahrgenommen wird. Neben der Darstellung empirischer Befunde werden die Grenzen des Effekts diskutiert, sowie theoretische und praktische Implikationen vorgestellt.

Oxytocin blurs the self-other distinction implicitly but not explicitly

Previous research has shown an inconsistent pattern of how oxytocin (OT) affects the distinction between self and others: whereas one line of studies has revealed that OT blurs the self-other distinction, other studies have not. In an attempt to solve these inconsistencies, we hypothesized that OT blurs the boundary between self and other implicitly but not explicitly. To test this assumption, we used two experimental approaches. After participants intranasally self-administered OT or placebo, they were eye-tracked while conducting a prediction task (Study 1) or they were video-recorded while conducting a distraction task with a human counterpart (Study 2). The findings confirmed the hypothesis. People usually show a distinct eye movement pattern when making self and other predictions. OT changed this pattern: the eye movement behavior during other predictions approached the eye movement behavior during selfpredictions under OT in Study 1. In Study 2, OT made the participants to mimic their confederates' mannerisms more strongly, displaying a behavioral self-other merge. Importantly, these incidents of self-other blurring only emerged implicitly. In Study 1, conscious likelihood estimates sharply differentiated between other and selfpredictions, and participants in Study 2 were not aware of mimicking the others' behaviors. Thus, a self-other merge did not occur explicitly. These findings provide some insights into recent inconsistencies of OT research and add to the understanding of the nonapeptide itself.

"Lie to me"-Oxytocin impairs lie detection between sexes

The hormone oxytocin modulates various aspects of social behaviors and even seems to lead to a tendency for gullibility. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of oxytocin on lie detection. We hypothesized that people under oxytocin would be particularly susceptible to lies told by people of the opposite sex. After administration of oxytocin or a placebo, male and female participants were asked to judge the veracity of statements from same- vs. other-sex actors who either lied or told the truth. Results showed that oxytocin decreased the ability of both male and female participants to correctly classify other-sex statements as truths or lies compared to placebo. This effect was based on a lower ability to detect lies and not a stronger bias to regard truth statements as false. Revealing a new effect of oxytocin, the findings may support assumptions about the hormone working as a catalyst for social adaption.

Safety in Beauty

Abstract. Individuals regularly exhibit antisocial responses after social exclusion. In four unregistered studies (1a, 1b, 2, and 3) and one preregistered experiment (Study 4), we tested the hypothesis that the excluder’s physical attractiveness reduces the relationship between social exclusion and negative responding. Results showed that exclusion by a highly attractive source caused less aggressive and more prosocial responses than exclusion by a less attractive source (Studies 1–3). The interaction effect was mediated by perceived likeability of the excluding person (Study 3). The preregistered experiment did not confirm the interactive effect between exclusion and attractiveness (Study 4); however, exploratory analyses indicated the effect on pro- (but not antisocial) responding. Inconsistent findings as well as the theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Oxytocin promotes attention to social cues regardless of group membership

The social saliency account proposes that oxytocin (OT) plays a major role in modulating attentional shifts toward social cues at early stages of processing. We investigated how OT promotes early attention toward nonsocial and social stimuli and explored differences between in-group- and out-group-related social cues. After participants intranasally self-administered OT or placebo, they were eye-tracked while observing a nonsocial and social cues that were assigned to the in- or out-group by a minimal group paradigm. Participants under placebo did not differ in their fixation durations between stimuli, whereas participants administered OT increased gaze durations toward social but not nonsocial stimuli. In this early stage of processing, no in-group bias occurred: in-group- and out-group-related social cues were fixated equally long. These findings support that OT works by a simple illumination of social cues that seem to be processed regardless of social identity aspects at early stages of attention.

Glucose Increases Risky Behavior and Attitudes in People Low in Self-Control

Abstract. People low in self-control have a strong proclivity toward risk-taking. Risk-taking behavior provides an opportunity to obtain some form of reward. Glucose, on the other hand, seems to facilitate reward and goal-directed behavior. In a pilot study executed in the laboratory, we investigated whether consuming a glucose drink would increase risky behavior and attitudes in people low in self-control. Our findings revealed that a dose of glucose compared to placebo increased risk-taking on a behavioral and cognitive level in participants low in self-control but not in participants high in self-control. The findings may shed some light on the psychological underpinnings of glucose: By showing glucose’s association with high-risk behavior, they support the assumption of glucose driving a goal-directed motivation.

Rejection Via Video

Abstract. This study introduces an easy-to-implement, controlled, vivid, and functional rejection paradigm. Participants empathized with the protagonist of a video who was rejected or accepted individually or as part of a group. In the rejection condition, more perceived exclusion and lower basic need fulfillment were reported. The paradigm also induced nuance in situational factors: Observing somebody being rejected as part of a group led to less pronounced reactions than individual rejection. The video-based rejection paradigm taps into the less studied area of group rejection and offers a new method to test established and novel theoretical predictions.

Your word is my command: Oxytocin facilitates the understanding of appeal in verbal communication

The hormone oxytocin is known to facilitate positive communication behaviors. In the current study, we aimed to examine how it affects the interpretation of verbal information during communication. We predicted oxytocin to promote the understanding of the socially most effortful dimension of appeal. After intranasal administration of oxytocin or a placebo, participants responded to a "four-ear communication" questionnaire. Results revealed that participants under oxytocin not only chose the dimension of appeal as first choice significantly more often than participants under placebo but also preferred it over most of the other dimensions of interpretation. The findings add to our knowledge of oxytocin as a facilitator of social approach and indicate how oxytocin might work in communicative settings.

On the Borders of Harmful and Helpful Beauty Biases

Research with European Caucasian samples demonstrates that attractiveness-based biases in social evaluation depend on the constellation of the sex of the evaluator and the sex of the target: Whereas people generally show positive biases toward attractive opposite-sex persons, they show less positive or even negative biases toward attractive same-sex persons. By examining these biases both within and between different ethnicities, the current studies provide new evidence for both the generalizability and the specificity of these attractiveness-based social perception biases. Examining within-ethnicity effects, Study 1 is the first to demonstrate that samples from diverse ethnic backgrounds parallel the finding of European Caucasian samples: The advantageous or adverse effects of attractiveness depend on the gender constellation of the evaluator and the evaluated person. Examining between-ethnicity effects, Study 2 found that these attractiveness-based biases emerge almost exclusively toward targets of the evaluator’s own ethnic background; these biases were reduced or eliminated for cross-ethnicity evaluations and interaction intentions. We discuss these findings in light of evolutionary principles and reflect on potential interactions between culture and evolved cognitive mechanisms.

Whatever? The effect of social exclusion on adopting persuasive messages

The aversive state of social exclusion can result in a broad range of cognitive deficits. Being unable or unmotivated to process relevant information, we assumed that social exclusion would also affect the success of persuasive attempts. We hypothesized that socially excluded people would adopt attitudes regardless of persuasion quality. In three studies using different manipulations of social exclusion and persuasion, we showed that participants who were socially excluded adopted persuasive messages regardless of argument quality. In contrast, this undifferentiated response was not shown by socially included participants who were more persuaded by high- compared to low-quality arguments. In Study 3, we moreover revealed that this pattern could only be replicated in reliable situations-that is, when the communicator appeared credible. These findings support the assumption that social exclusion can lead to reduced processing of information.

Sugar or spice: Using I3 metatheory to understand how and why glucose reduces rejection-related aggression

Social rejection can increase aggression, especially among people high in rejection sensitivity. Rejection impairs self-control, and deficits in self-control often result in aggression. A dose of glucose can counteract the effect of situational factors that undermine self-control. But no research has integrated these literatures to understand why rejection increases aggression, and how to reduce it. Using the I(3) model of aggression, we proposed that aggression would be highest under conditions of high instigation (rejection), high impellance (high rejection sensitivity), and low inhibition (drinking a beverage sweetened with a sugar substitute instead of glucose). As predicted, aggression was highest among participants who experienced social rejection, were high in rejection sensitivity, and drank a placebo beverage. A dose of glucose reduced aggression, especially among rejected people high in rejection sensitivity. These findings point to the importance of self-control in understanding why social rejection increases aggression, and how to prevent it.

Exclude Me If You Can

We examined how individualistic versus collectivistic cultural backgrounds affected the psychological experience of social exclusion. We found that Turkish, Chinese, and Indian participants (collectivistic background) differed in their experience of social exclusion from German participants (individualistic background): German participants experienced lower fulfillment of psychological needs in response to social exclusion, whereas Turkish, Chinese, and Indian participants were affected to a lesser extent (Turkey, India, Hong Kong) or not at all (mainland China) by social exclusion manipulations. Testing two different explanatory mechanisms in Study 3, we found that the difference in dealing with social exclusion was not associated with activating social representations in participants with collectivistic background but with exclusion being associated with more threat in participants with individualistic background. In Study 4, cultural differences emerged also on the physiological level: German participants’ heart rates were increased when excluded, whereas Chinese participants showed no change in heart rate during exclusion. The results are discussed regarding their implications for the role of self-construal and culture when dealing with the threat of social exclusion.

The different behavioral intentions of collectivists and individualists in response to social exclusion

We investigated how participants with collectivistic and individualistic orientation cope with social exclusion on a behavioral level. In Studies 1 and 2, we found participants with more individualistic orientation to indicate more antisocial behavioral intentions in response to exclusion than in response to inclusion; however, participants with more collectivistic orientation did not differ in their behavioral intentions between exclusion and inclusion. In the third and fourth study, we replicated our findings across cultures: German and U.S. participants indicated more antisocial and avoiding behavioral intentions under exclusion than under inclusion, whereas Turkish and Indian participants did not differ in their behavioral intentions between exclusion and inclusion. In Studies 3 and 4, only German and U.S. participants were significantly affected by exclusion, showing more negative mood, which correlated with their behavioral intentions. In Study 4, the different behavioral intentions of collectivists and individualists were mediated by a different threat experience. The findings emphasize the role of self-construal and culture, as well as the self-threat inherent in exclusion.