Does culture shape our understanding of others' thoughts and emotions? An investigation across 12 countries

Measures of social cognition have now become central in neuropsychology, being essential for early and differential diagnoses, follow-up, and rehabilitation in a wide range of conditions. With the scientific world becoming increasingly interconnected, international neuropsychological and medical collaborations are burgeoning to tackle the global challenges that are mental health conditions. These initiatives commonly merge data across a diversity of populations and countries, while ignoring their specificity.

OBJECTIVE

In this context, we aimed to estimate the influence of participants' nationality on social cognition evaluation. This issue is of particular importance as most cognitive tasks are developed in highly specific contexts, not representative of that encountered by the world's population.

METHOD

Through a large international study across 18 sites, neuropsychologists assessed core aspects of social cognition in 587 participants from 12 countries using traditional and widely used tasks.

RESULTS

Age, gender, and education were found to impact measures of mentalizing and emotion recognition. After controlling for these factors, differences between countries accounted for more than 20% of the variance on both measures. Importantly, it was possible to isolate participants' nationality from potential translation issues, which classically constitute a major limitation.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these findings highlight the need for important methodological shifts to better represent social cognition in both fundamental research and clinical practice, especially within emerging international networks and consortia. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Tail Wags the Dog: The Far Periphery of the Coordination Environment Manipulates the Photophysical Properties of Heteroleptic Cu(I) Complexes

In this work we show, using the example of a series of [Cu(Xantphos)(N^N)]+ complexes (N^N being substituted 5-phenyl-bipyridine) with different peripheral N^N ligands, that substituents distant from the main action zone can have a significant effect on the physicochemical properties of the system. By using the C≡C bond on the periphery of the coordination environment, three hybrid molecular systems with -Si(CH3)3, -Au(PR3), and -C2HN3(CH2)C10H7 fragments were produced. The Cu(I) complexes thus obtained demonstrate complicated emission behaviour, which was investigated by spectroscopic, electrochemical, and computational methods in order to understand the mechanism of energy transfer. It was found that the -Si(CH3)3 fragment connected to the peripheral C≡C bond changes luminescence to long-lived intra-ligand phosphorescence, in contrast to MLCT phosphorescence or TADF. The obtained results can be used for the design of new materials based on Cu(I) complexes with controlled optoelectronic properties on the molecular level, as well as for the production of hybrid systems.

Mutually Isomeric 2- and 4-(3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)pyrimidines Inspired by an Antimycobacterial Screening Hit: Synthesis and Biological Activity against the ESKAPE Panel of Pathogens

Starting from the structure of antimycobacterial screening hit OTB-021 which was devoid of activity against ESKAPE pathogens, we designed, synthesized and tested two mutually isomeric series of novel simplified analogs, 2- and 4-(3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)pyrimidines, bearing various amino side chains. These compounds demonstrated a reverse bioactivity profile being inactive against M. tuberculosis while inhibiting the growth of all ESKAPE pathogens (with variable potency patterns) except for Gram-negative P. aeruginosa. Reduction potentials (E_1/2, V) measured for selected compounds by cyclic voltammetry were tightly grouped in the -1.3--1.1 V range for a reversible single-electron reduction. No apparent correlation between the E_1/2 values and the ESKAPE minimum inhibitory concentrations was established, suggesting possible significance of other factors, besides the compounds' reduction potential, which determine the observed antibacterial activity. Generally, more negative E_1/2 values were displayed by 2-(3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)pyrimidines, which is in line with the frequently observed activity loss on moving the 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl moiety from position 4 to position 2 of the pyrimidine nucleus.

Management of mild cognitive impairment (MCI): The need for national and international guidelines

Objectives: To review available evidence of pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment for MCI and analyse information and limitations in national and international guidelines.Methods: Experts from several European countries conducted a qualitative review of the literature on MCI and treatments for MCI, as well as respective chapters in national and international guidelines on dementia/MCI. Psychotherapeutic/psychosocial treatments were excluded from the review.Results: Consensus diagnostic criteria for MCI are available, making early recognition and accurate classification of MCI subtypes possible. MCI can be identified in a primary care setting. Further corroboration and differential diagnosis should be done at specialist level. Mixed pathologies are the rule in MCI, thus a multi-target treatment approach is a rational strategy. Promising evidence has been generated for multi-domain interventions. Limited evidence is available for different pharmacological classes that have been investigated in MCI clinical trials (e.g. acetylcholinesterase inhibitors). EGb 761^® improved symptoms in some clinical trials; it is the only pharmacological treatment recommended in existing guidelines for the symptomatic treatment of MCI.Conclusions: MCI is recognised as an important treatment target and some recent national guidelines have considered symptomatic treatment recommendations for MCI. However, more needs to be done, especially at an international level.

Task-related measures of short-interval intracortical inhibition and GABA levels in healthy young and older adults: A multimodal TMS-MRS study

Establishing the associations between magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)-assessed gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-derived ‘task-related’ modulations in GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition and how these associations change with advancing age is a topic of interest in the field of human neuroscience. In this study, we identified the relationship between GABA levels and task-related modulations in GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition in the dominant (left) and non-dominant (right) sensorimotor (SM) cortices. GABA levels were measured using edited MRS and task-related GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition was measured using a short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) TMS protocol during the preparation and premotor period of a choice reaction time (CRT) task in 25 young (aged 18–33 years) and 25 older (aged 60–74 years) adults. Our results demonstrated that GABA levels in both SM voxels were lower in older adults as compared to younger adults; and higher SM GABA levels in the dominant as compared to the non-dominant SM voxel pointed to a lateralization effect, irrespective of age group. Furthermore, older adults showed decreased GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition in the preparation phase of the CRT task within the dominant primary motor cortex (M1), as compared to young adults. Finally, results from an exploratory correlation analysis pointed towards positive relationships between MRS-assessed GABA levels and TMS-derived task-related SICI measures. However, after correction for multiple comparisons none of the correlations remained significant.

Age-Related Declines in Motor Performance are Associated With Decreased Segregation of Large-Scale Resting State Brain Networks

Aging is typically associated with substantial declines in motor functioning as well as robust changes in the functional organization of brain networks. Previous research has investigated the link between these 2 age-varying factors but examinations were predominantly limited to the functional organization within motor-related brain networks. Little is known about the relationship between age-related behavioral impairments and changes in functional organization at the whole brain (i.e., multiple network) level. This knowledge gap is surprising given that the decreased segregation of brain networks (i.e., increased internetwork connectivity) can be considered a hallmark of the aging process. Accordingly, we investigated the association between declines in motor performance across the adult lifespan (20-75 years) and age-related modulations of functional connectivity within and between resting state networks. Results indicated that stronger internetwork resting state connectivity observed as a function of age was significantly related to worse motor performance. Moreover, performance had a significantly stronger association with the strength of internetwork as compared with intranetwork connectivity, including connectivity within motor networks. These findings suggest that age-related declines in motor performance may be attributed to a breakdown in the functional organization of large-scale brain networks rather than simply age-related connectivity changes within motor-related networks.

Relationship between the MDS-UPDRS and Quality of Life: A large multicenter study of 3206 patients

BACKGROUND

The relationship between Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) and MDS-UPDRS has not been fully studied so far. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between all MDS-UPDRS components and HRQoL in a representative international cohort of PD patients.

METHODS

We collected demographic and disease-related data as well as MDS-UPDRS and PDQ8 scales. Data were analyzed using correlations between PDQ8 and all MDS-UPDRS items, subsequently two hierarchical multiple regressions were performed, first between the scores of the MDS-UPDRS Parts and PDQ8 and second between individual items from those Parts demonstrating significant relationship to PDQ8 scores in the first regression. LASSO regression analyses were performed to evaluate the relationship between PDQ8 and all individual MDS-UPDRS items.

RESULTS

A total of 3206 PD patients were included in the study. In the first regression analysis, PDQ8 was significantly related to MDS-UPDRS parts I and II, but not to III and IV. In the second regression model, significant contributions to PDQ8 were found for Part I items Fatigue, Pain, Depressed mood, Apathy; and Part II items Dressing, Doing hobbies, Freezing, Speech and Tremor. In the LASSO analysis, six Part I, seven Part II, three Part III and one Part IV items contributed to PDQ8 scores. The five items most significantly related to the model were Depressed mood, Dressing, Apathy, Pain and Fatigue.

CONCLUSIONS

This is so far the largest study related to HRQoL issues in PD. Restrictions in activities of daily living and non-motor symptoms significantly contribute to HRQoL in PD.

Differences in MDS-UPDRS Scores Based on Hoehn and Yahr Stage and Disease Duration

Background

The Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS) is a newly developed tool to assess Parkinson's disease (PD). Changes in scores on the scale over the course of PD, including increasing disease duration and Hoehn and Yahr (HY) stages, have not been described. The objectives of this study were to analyze MDS-UPDRS scores on Parts I through IV and their differences based on HY stage and disease duration in a large cohort of patients with PD.

Methods

For this cross-sectional study, demographic data and MDS-UPDRS scores were collected, including HY stage. Subscores on MDS-UPDRS Parts I through IV were analyzed using 1-way analyses of variance for each HY stage and in 5-year increments of disease duration. Part III (motor assessment) scores were analyzed separately for on and off states.

Results

The mean age of the 3206 patients was 65.8 ± 10.6 years, 53.3% were men, the mean disease duration was 11.5 ± 4.6 years, and the median HY stage was 2 (range, 0-5); 2156 patients were examined in an on state and 987 were examined in an off state. Scores for all MDS-UPDRS parts increased significantly through HY stages 1 through 5, with an average increase of 3.8, 7.7, 14.6, and 2.0 points consecutively for parts I through IV, respectively. For the 5-year increments of disease duration, MDS-UPDRS subscores increased by an average of 1.6, 3.3, 4.2, and 1.4 points consecutively for parts I through IV, respectively. This increase was significant only during the first 15 years of disease for all 4 parts, including part III scores evaluated in both on and off states.

Conclusions

MDS-UPDRS scores for all 4 parts increase significantly with every HY stage and also with 5-year increments of disease duration in the first 15 years of the disease.

Drug profile: transdermal rivastigmine patch in the treatment of Alzheimer disease

Cholinesterase inhibitors constitute one of the mainstays of treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD). Gastrointestinal side effects, difficulty accessing therapeutic doses and poor patient compliance have been identified as barriers to effective treatment with these substances. The rivastigmine transdermal patch provides continuous delivery of drug through the skin into the bloodstream, avoiding the fluctuations in plasma concentration associated with oral administration. This pharmacokinetic profile is associated with reduced side effects, resulting in easier access to expected target doses. These benefits, along with other practical advantages of the transdermal patch, may contribute to enhanced patient compliance. Here, we present a review of the current literature on rivastigmine patch, and offer advice based on our own collective clinical experience. Rivastigmine patch provides an efficient option for managing patients with AD, to be considered among the first line therapies for the disease.

Posture Control and Complex Arm Coordination: Analysis of Multijoint Coordinative Movements and Stability of Stance

The authors addressed the interactions between control of bimanual multijoint coordination tasks and posture. Participants (N = 6) performed 8 coordination patterns that differed in degree of complexity by using their bilateral elbows and wrists under 3 scaled motion speeds while standing on 2 force plates. Results indicated that producing complex bimanual multijoint coordinative tasks affected postural sway, thus resulting in an increase of sway activity. Behavioral as well as mechanical factors accounted for the increased disturbance in postural sway. Those findings suggest that performing complex coordination tasks disrupts postural control in normal young adults.

Principal component analysis of complex multijoint coordinative movements

Principal components analysis (PCA) has not been very much in vogue within the field of movement coordination even though it is useful to reduce data dimensionality and to reveal underlying data structures. Traditionally, studies of coordination between two joints have predominantly made use of relative phase analyses. This has resulted in the identification of principal constraints that govern the Central Nervous System's organization and the control of coordination patterns. However, relative phase analyses on pairwise joints have some drawbacks because they are not optimal for revealing convergent patterns among multijoint coordination modes and for unraveling generic control strategies. In this paper, we present a method to analyze multijoint coordination based on the properties of PC, more specifically the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the covariance matrix. The comparison between relative phase analysis and PCA shows that both provide similar and consistent results, underscoring the latter technique's sensitivity to the study of coordination performance. In addition, it provides a method for automatic pattern detection as well as an index of performance for each joint within the context of the global coordination pattern. Finally, the merit of the PCA technique within the context of central pattern generators (CPG) will be discussed.

Dynamical changes in corticospinal excitability during imagery of unimanual and bimanual wrist movements in humans: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study

This study explored the dynamical changes in corticospinal excitability during the imagination of cyclical unimanual and bimanual wrist flexion-extension movements. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied over the left motor cortex to evoke motor evoked potentials in the right wrist flexor and extensor muscles. Findings provided evidence for increased reciprocal excitability changes during imagery of symmetrical in-phase movements as compared to asymmetrical (anti-phase) or unimanual movements. This suggests that in-phase movements may reinforce whereas anti-phase movements may reduce the temporal representation of the task in the corticospinal motor networks of the brain.

Frequency-dependent effects of muscle tendon vibration on corticospinal excitability: a TMS study

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of muscle tendon vibration at different frequencies on corticospinal excitability by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). A second objective was to describe whether the observed modulations in motor evoked potentials (MEPs), as a function of vibration frequency, reflect the behavior of Ia afferents during and after vibration. In ten subjects, muscle tendon vibration (duration 30 s) was applied to the flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscle at three different frequencies (20, 75 and 120 Hz). MEPs following single-pulse TMS were recorded from the targeted muscle during a previbration, vibration, and postvibration period. Muscle tendon vibration at 75 Hz increased the MEP amplitude significantly during vibration, whereas a smaller but still significant effect was observed during 120 Hz vibration. No significant MEP changes could be observed during 20 Hz vibration and during the postvibration period for each frequency. Our findings indicate that muscle tendon vibration exerts a frequency-dependent effect on corticospinal excitability. Furthermore, evidence is provided for the notion that the excitatory effect of muscle tendon vibration on the primary motor cortex is mediated by Ia afferent input.

Head movements destabilize cyclical in-phase but not anti-phase homologous limb coordination in humans

The present study addressed the role of head movements in the coordination of the homologous upper or lower limbs in supine normal subjects. Consistent with previous research, in-phase mirror symmetrical movements were performed more accurately and consistently than anti-phase movements. However, inclusion of head movements destabilized in-phase but not anti-phase homologous limb coordination, in contrast to previous work demonstrating a higher vulnerability of anti-phase than in-phase coordination to various experimental perturbations. It was observed that the head moved in the same direction as the limbs during anti- but not during in-phase coordination. Furthermore, the interlimb patterns also affected the head rotations that were lower in spatiotemporal consistency and less consistently coupled with the limbs during in-phase than during anti-phase coordination. These findings provide new insights into the coalition of egocentric and allocentric constraints during interlimb coordination.

Directional tuning effects during cyclical two-joint arm movements in the horizontal plane

The present study explored the effect of different movement orientations on the arm end-effector kinematic features, levels of muscle activity and intermuscular coordination between shoulder and elbow muscles during cyclical movement. Subjects were instructed to trace cyclical lines with their dominant arm along vertical, horizontal, and right (low inertia) or left diagonal (high inertia) orientations. EMG activity from the biceps, triceps and anterior and posterior deltoids were monitored along with the displacements of the end-effector of the arm. The results suggested a differential role for the shoulder versus elbow muscles in the manipulation of the hand end-effector trajectory. The activity in the shoulder flexors was predominantly in anti-phase with that of the shoulder extensors and was therefore presumed to manipulate the global features of the trajectory. Biceps and triceps tended to show less orchestrated activity and were therefore assumed to be responsible for making the fine adjustments and to compensate for intersegmental interactions. The most pronounced differences in kinematics and EMG features among the four principal movement orientations were observed between the two diagonal orientations, which differed profoundly in arm inertial resistance. The findings converged upon the principle of 'inertial anisotropy,' as previously identified for discrete movement, suggesting that the central nervous system did not fully preplan the actual kinematic requirements of cyclical task performance. Moreover, inertial anisotropy was evident in spite of the fact that movement was performed under temporal constraints (metronome pacing) and with availability of a visual template of the task, suggesting that enhancement of the feedback loop did not fully eliminate these effects.

Proprioceptive control of cyclical bimanual forearm movements across different movement frequencies as revealed by means of tendon vibration

The effect of unilateral tendon vibration on the performance of cyclical bimanual forearm movements was investigated across different cycling frequencies (from 0.67 to 2.53 Hz). The spatiotemporal features of the individual limb motions as well as their coordination were studied. Tendon vibration was found to result in a substantial reduction in the amplitude of the vibrated arm, leaving the nonvibrated arm unaffected. The vibration-induced amplitude reduction decreased from 26% to 11% as cycling frequency increased even though significant reductions were still observed at the highest cycling frequencies. Tendon vibration was also found to result in an increase of the phase lead of the dominant arm with respect to the nondominant arm, but this effect was not modulated by cycling frequency. The data argue in favor of a closed-loop mode of movement control during cyclical high-speed movements. It is suggested that kinesthetic afferent information is processed and used to guide action up to near-maximal movement speeds, reinforcing recent claims with respect to visual information processing.

Constraints during bimanual coordination: the role of direction in relation to amplitude and force requirements

The present study addressed the status of spatial encoding during a bimanual task paradigm. This was based on the premise that patterns of contralateral interference during bimanual coordination provide a window into those movement parameters that are primarily encoded within the central nervous system. Results showed that both direction and amplitude were subject to (bilateral) interference when different specifications were to be generated simultaneously for each limb. Directional interference was found to be partially independent of the amount and pattern of underlying muscle activation, suggesting that direction is encoded at a rather abstract level in the central nervous system. The findings are consistent with single-cell recording studies that have pointed to the role of directional tuning in various brain areas. Moreover, the findings suggest that spatial parameters of movement constrain the coordination of limb movements in addition to temporal parameters.

Transcutaneous FES of the paralyzed quadriceps: is knee torque affected by unintended activation of the hamstrings?

This study addresses the question whether unintended response of the knee flexors (hamstrings) accompanies transcutaneous functional electrical stimulation (FES) of the quadriceps and whether the knee torque is hereby affected. Transcutaneous FES of the right quadriceps of two paraplegic subjects was applied and measurements were made of the net torque and of the myoelectric activities of the quadriceps and hamstrings muscles of the right leg. A low correlation was obtained between the peak-to-peak amplitudes of the M-waves of the two muscles. This correlation decreased further with the development of fatigue, which indicated that the electromyography (EMG) signals from the hamstrings were not the result of cross-talk between adjacent recording sites. The force profile of each muscle was determined from a developed model incorporating EMG-based activation, muscle anthropometry as obtained from in vivo magnetic resonance imaging of the thigh, and metabolic fatigue function, based on data acquired by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. A sensitivity analysis revealed that the muscle specific tension and the muscle moment arms have a major influence on the resulting muscle forces and should therefore be accurately provided. The results show that during the unfatigued phase of contraction the estimated maximal force in the hamstrings was lower than 20% of that in the quadriceps and could be considered to be practically negligible. As fatigue progressed the hamstrings-to-quadriceps force ratio increased, reaching up to 45%, and the effect of co-activation on the torque partition between the two muscles was no longer negligible.

EMG and metabolite-based prediction of force in paralyzed quadriceps muscle under interrupted stimulation

A major issue associated with functional electrical stimulation (FES) of a paralyzed limb is the decay with time of the muscle force as a result of fatigue. A possible means to reduce fatigue during FES is by using interrupted stimulation, in which fatigue and recovery occur in sequence. In this study, we present a model which enables us to evaluate the temporal force generation capacity within the electrically activated muscle during first stimulation fatigue, i.e., when the muscle is activated from unfatigued initial conditions, and during postrest stimulation, i.e., after different given rest durations. The force history of the muscle is determined by the activation as derived from actually measured electromyogram (EMG) data, and by the metabolic fatigue function expressing the temporal changes of muscle metabolites, from existing data acquired by in vivo 31P MR spectroscopy in terms of the inorganic phosphorus variables, Pi or H2PO4-, and by the intracellular pH. The model was solved for supra-maximal stimulation in isometric contractions separated by rest periods, and compared to experimentally obtained measurements. EMG data were fundamental for prediction of the ascending force during its posttetanic response. On the other hand, prediction of the decaying phase of the force was possible only by means of the metabolite-based fatigue function. The prediction capability of the model was assessed by means of the error between predicted and measured force profiles. The predicted force obtained from the model in first stimulation fatigue fits well with the experimental one. In postrest stimulation fatigue, the different metabolites provided different prediction capabilities of the force, depending on the duration of the rest period. Following rest duration of 1 min, Pi provided the best prediction of force; H2PO4- extended the prediction capacity of the model to up to 6 min and pH provided a reliable prediction for rest durations longer than 12 min. The results presented shed light on the roles of EMG and of metabolites in prediction of the force history of a paralyzed muscle under conditions where fatigue and recovery occur in sequence.

Standing sway: iterative estimation of the kinematics and dynamics of the lower extremities from force-plate measurements

In this study, a model for the estimation of the dynamics of the lower extremities in standing sway from force plate data only is presented. A three-dimensional, five-segment, four-joint model of the human body was used to describe postural standing sway dynamics. Force-plate data of the reactive forces and centers of pressure were measured bilaterally. By applying the equations of motion to these data, the transversal trajectory of the center of gravity (CG) of the body was resolved in the sagittal and coronal planes. An inverse kinematics algorithm was used to evaluate the kinematics of the body segments. The dynamics of the segments was then resolved by using the Newton-Euler equations, and the model's estimated dynamic quantities of the distal segments were compared with those actually measured. Differences between model and measured dynamics were calculated and minimized, using an iterative algorithm to re-estimate joint positioning and anthropometric properties. The above method was tested with a group of 11 able-bodied subjects, and the results indicated that the relative errors obtained in the final iteration were of the same order of magnitude as those reported for closed loop problems involved in direct kinematic measurements of human gait.

Mutagenicity of pan residues and gravy from fried meat

Lean pork meat was fried with or without the addition of frying-fat at 200 or 250 degrees C. The pan residues were collected by washing the hot pan with boiling water. When producing thickened gravy the water was substituted by a mixture of water and flour, milk and flour or cream and flour. The basic extracts were tested for mutagenicity in Ames' Salmonella test on strain TA98 with the addition of S9 mix. High amounts of mutagenicity were found in all samples. The amounts of mutagenicity in the pan residues were at a comparable level of the amounts found in the meat crusts. Thickening of the gravy caused only small changes in the mutagenicity.

Influence of frying fat on mutagenic activity in lean pork meat

Mutagenic activity in lean pork meat fried at two different pan temperatures, 200 degrees C and 250 degrees C, with or without the addition of fat, was measured in Ames' Salmonella test on strain TA98. 9 different fats with varying chemical composition were tested. All fried meat samples were shown to be mutagenic. At the frying temperature of 200 degrees C differences between meat samples fried in different fats or without fat, respectively, were small. All meat samples fried at 250 degrees C were considerably more mutagenic than the samples fried at 200 degrees C. At 250 degrees C, the addition of fat caused a significant rise in mutagenic activity. We believe this is mainly an effect of more efficient heat transfer from the bottom of the frying-pan to the meat samples, although other factors may also contribute.

High mutagenic activity formed in pan-broiled pork

Lean pork was pan-broiled at various temperatures between 100 and 290 degrees C. Cooking was performed in an open frying pan common for domestic use in Sweden. No fat was added. Cooking procedures are clearly defined in order to facilitate inter-laboratory comparisons. The crust was extracted with organic solvents of varying polarity. The mutagenic activity was assayed with Ames' Salmonella mutagenicity test. Large amounts of mutagenic activity were detected in samples pan-broiled at 200-290 degrees C. The mutagenic activity recovered was about 10 times higher than that reported by previous investigators to be found during cooking of meat under similar conditions. This discrepancy could be due to differences in the composition of Swedish pork as compared to the meat samples used by other investigators or to different methodology in cooking and extraction procedures.