1
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Hare BM, Scholten O, Dwyer J, Trinh TNG, Buitink S, Ter Veen S, Bonardi A, Corstanje A, Falcke H, Hörandel JR, Huege T, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen JP, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Winchen T, Anderson J, Avruch IM, Bentum MJ, Blaauw R, Broderick JW, Brouw WN, Brüggen M, Butcher HR, Ciardi B, Fallows RA, de Geus E, Duscha S, Eislöffel J, Garrett MA, Grießmeier JM, Gunst AW, van Haarlem MP, Hessels JWT, Hoeft M, van der Horst AJ, Iacobelli M, Koopmans LVE, Krankowski A, Maat P, Norden MJ, Paas H, Pandey-Pommier M, Pandey VN, Pekal R, Pizzo R, Reich W, Rothkaehl H, Röttgering HJA, Rowlinson A, Schwarz DJ, Shulevski A, Sluman J, Smirnov O, Soida M, Tagger M, Toribio MC, van Ardenne A, Wijers RAMJ, van Weeren RJ, Wucknitz O, Zarka P, Zucca P. Needle-like structures discovered on positively charged lightning branches. Nature 2019; 568:360-363. [PMID: 30996312 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1086-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Lightning is a dangerous yet poorly understood natural phenomenon. Lightning forms a network of plasma channels propagating away from the initiation point with both positively and negatively charged ends-called positive and negative leaders1. Negative leaders propagate in discrete steps, emitting copious radio pulses in the 30-300-megahertz frequency band2-8 that can be remotely sensed and imaged with high spatial and temporal resolution9-11. Positive leaders propagate more continuously and thus emit very little high-frequency radiation12. Radio emission from positive leaders has nevertheless been mapped13-15, and exhibits a pattern that is different from that of negative leaders11-13,16,17. Furthermore, it has been inferred that positive leaders can become transiently disconnected from negative leaders9,12,16,18-20, which may lead to current pulses that both reconnect positive leaders to negative leaders11,16,17,20-22 and cause multiple cloud-to-ground lightning events1. The disconnection process is thought to be due to negative differential resistance18, but this does not explain why the disconnections form primarily on positive leaders22, or why the current in cloud-to-ground lightning never goes to zero23. Indeed, it is still not understood how positive leaders emit radio-frequency radiation or why they behave differently from negative leaders. Here we report three-dimensional radio interferometric observations of lightning over the Netherlands with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. We find small plasma structures-which we call 'needles'-that are the dominant source of radio emission from the positive leaders. These structures appear to drain charge from the leader, and are probably the reason why positive leaders disconnect from negative ones, and why cloud-to-ground lightning connects to the ground multiple times.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Hare
- KVI-Center for Advanced Radiation Technology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - O Scholten
- KVI-Center for Advanced Radiation Technology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands. .,Inter University Institute for High Energies, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - J Dwyer
- Department of Physics and Space Science Center (EOS), University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA
| | - T N G Trinh
- KVI-Center for Advanced Radiation Technology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - S Buitink
- Astrophysical Institute, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - S Ter Veen
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - A Bonardi
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - A Corstanje
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - H Falcke
- Inter University Institute for High Energies, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Brussels, Belgium.,ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,NIKHEF, Science Park Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J R Hörandel
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,NIKHEF, Science Park Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - T Huege
- Astrophysical Institute, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Nuclear Physics, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - P Mitra
- Astrophysical Institute, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - K Mulrey
- Astrophysical Institute, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - A Nelles
- Institut für Physik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,DESY, Zeuthen, Germany
| | - J P Rachen
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - L Rossetto
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - P Schellart
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - T Winchen
- Astrophysical Institute, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - J Anderson
- Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation Science, Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department 1, Geodesy GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany
| | - I M Avruch
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,Science and Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - M J Bentum
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - R Blaauw
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - J W Broderick
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - W N Brouw
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Brüggen
- University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - H R Butcher
- Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - B Ciardi
- Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching, Germany
| | - R A Fallows
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - E de Geus
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,SmarterVision BV, Assen, The Netherlands
| | - S Duscha
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - J Eislöffel
- Thüringer Landessternwarte, Tautenburg, Germany
| | - M A Garrett
- Jodrell Bank Center for Astrophysics, School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - J M Grießmeier
- LPC2E-Université d'Orleans/CNRS, Orléans, France.,Station de Radioastronomie de Nancay, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS/INSU, Université d'Orleans, OSUC, Nancay, France
| | - A W Gunst
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - M P van Haarlem
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - J W T Hessels
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Hoeft
- Thüringer Landessternwarte, Tautenburg, Germany
| | - A J van der Horst
- Department of Physics, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - M Iacobelli
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - L V E Koopmans
- Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - A Krankowski
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Space Radio-Diagnostics Research Centre, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - P Maat
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - M J Norden
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - H Paas
- Center for Information Technology (CIT), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Pandey-Pommier
- Station de Radioastronomie de Nancay, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS/INSU, Université d'Orleans, OSUC, Nancay, France.,CRAL, Observatoire de Lyon, Université Lyon, UMR5574, Saint Genis Laval, France
| | - V N Pandey
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - R Pekal
- Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center (PCSS), Poznan, Poland
| | - R Pizzo
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - W Reich
- Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Bonn, Germany
| | | | | | - A Rowlinson
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands.,Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - D J Schwarz
- Fakultät für Physik, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - A Shulevski
- Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Sluman
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - O Smirnov
- Department of Physics and Electronics, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa.,SKA South Africa, Pinelands, South Africa
| | - M Soida
- Jagiellonian University, Astronomical Observatory, Krakow, Poland
| | - M Tagger
- LPC2E-Université d'Orleans/CNRS, Orléans, France
| | - M C Toribio
- Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A van Ardenne
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - R A M J Wijers
- Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R J van Weeren
- Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - O Wucknitz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Bonn, Germany
| | - P Zarka
- LESIA & USN, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, PSL/SU/UPMC/UPD/SPC, Meudon, France
| | - P Zucca
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
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Plaisier I, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Falcke H, Hare B, Hörandel J, de Jong S, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen J, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Scholten O, ter Veen S, Thoudam S, Trinh T, Winchen T. A new parametrization for the radio emission of air showers applied to LOFAR data. EPJ Web Conf 2019. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201921603011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The energy and mass composition of cosmic rays influence how the energy density of the radio emission of air showers is distributed on the ground. A precise description of the radio profiles can, therefore, be used to reconstruct the properties of the primary cosmic rays. Here, such a description is presented, using a separate treatment of the two radio-emission mechanisms, the geomagnetic effect and the charge excess effect. The model is parametrized as a function that depends only on the shower parameters, allowing for a precise reconstruction of the properties of the primary cosmic rays. This model is applied to cosmic-ray events measured with LOFAR and it is capable of reconstructing the properties of air showers correctly.
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Winchen T, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Falcke H, Hare BM, Hörandel A, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen J, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Scholten O, ter Veen S, Thoudam S, Trinh T. Properties of the Lunar Detection Mode for ZeV-Scale Particles with LOFAR. EPJ Web Conf 2019. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201921604010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The steep decrease of the flux of ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECR) provides a challenge to answer the long standing question about their origin and nature. A significant increase in detector volume may be achieved byemploying Earth’s moon as a detector that is read out using existing Earth-bound radio telescopes by searching for the radio pulses emitted by the particle shower in the lunar rock. In this contribution we will report on the properties of a corresponding detection mode currently under development for the LOFAR Radio telescope.
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4
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Mulrey K, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Falcke H, Hare B, Hörandel J, Mitra P, Nelles A, Rachen J, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Scholten O, ter Veen S, Thoudam S, Trinh T, Winchen T. Updated Calibration of the LOFAR Low-Band Antennas. EPJ Web Conf 2019. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201921604006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The LOw-Frequency ARray (LOFAR) telescope measures radio emission from air showers. In order to interpret the data, an absolute, frequency dependent calibration is required. Due to a growing need for a better understanding of the measured frequency spectrum, we revisit the calibration of the LOFAR antennas in the range of 30—80 MHz. Using the galactic radio emission and a detailed model of the LOFAR signal chain, we find a calibration that provides an absolute energy scale and allows us to study frequency dependent features in measured air shower signals.
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5
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Hare BM, Scholten O, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Ebert U, Falcke H, Hörandel JR, Leijnse H, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen JP, Rossetto L, Rutjes C, Schellart P, Thoudam S, Trinh TNG, ter Veen S, Winchen T. LOFAR Lightning Imaging: Mapping Lightning With Nanosecond Precision. J Geophys Res Atmos 2018; 123:2861-2876. [PMID: 29938144 PMCID: PMC5993312 DOI: 10.1002/2017jd028132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Lightning mapping technology has proven instrumental in understanding lightning. In this work we present a pipeline that can use lightning observed by the LOw-Frequency ARray (LOFAR) radio telescope to construct a 3-D map of the flash. We show that LOFAR has unparalleled precision, on the order of meters, even for lightning flashes that are over 20 km outside the area enclosed by LOFAR antennas (∼3,200 km2), and can potentially locate over 10,000 sources per lightning flash. We also show that LOFAR is the first lightning mapping system that is sensitive to the spatial structure of the electrical current during individual lightning leader steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. M. Hare
- KVI‐Center for Advanced Radiation TechnologyUniversity of GroningenGroningenNetherlands
| | - O. Scholten
- KVI‐Center for Advanced Radiation TechnologyUniversity of GroningenGroningenNetherlands
- Interuniversity Institute for High‐EnergyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - A. Bonardi
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
| | - S. Buitink
- Astrophysical InstituteVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - A. Corstanje
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
| | - U. Ebert
- Center for Mathematics and Computer ScienceAmsterdamNetherlands
- Department of Applied PhysicsEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhovenNetherlands
| | - H. Falcke
- Interuniversity Institute for High‐EnergyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
- NIKHEF, Science Park AmsterdamAmsterdamNetherlands
- Netherlands Institute of Radio Astronomy (ASTRON)DwingelooNetherlands
- Max‐Planck‐Institut für RadioastronomieBonnGermany
| | - J. R. Hörandel
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
- NIKHEF, Science Park AmsterdamAmsterdamNetherlands
| | - H. Leijnse
- Royal Netherlands Meteorological InstituteDe BiltNetherlands
| | - P. Mitra
- Astrophysical InstituteVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - K. Mulrey
- Astrophysical InstituteVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
| | - A. Nelles
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
- Department of Physics and AstronomyUniversity of California IrvineIrvineCAUSA
| | - J. P. Rachen
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
| | - L. Rossetto
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
| | - C. Rutjes
- Center for Mathematics and Computer ScienceAmsterdamNetherlands
| | - P. Schellart
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
- Department of Astrophysical SciencesPrinceton UniversityPrincetonNJUSA
| | - S. Thoudam
- Department of Physics and Electrical EngineeringLinnuniversitetetVäxjöSweden
| | - T. N. G. Trinh
- KVI‐Center for Advanced Radiation TechnologyUniversity of GroningenGroningenNetherlands
| | - S. ter Veen
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPPRadboud University NijmegenNijmegenNetherlands
- Netherlands Institute of Radio Astronomy (ASTRON)DwingelooNetherlands
| | - T. Winchen
- Astrophysical InstituteVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
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6
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Trinh T, Scholten O, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Ebert U, Enriquez JE, Falcke H, Hörandel J, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Thoudam S, Rachen J, Rossetto L, Rutjes C, Schellart P, ter Veen S, Winchen T. Circular polarization of radio emission from air showers in thunderstorm conditions. EPJ Web Conf 2017. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201713503002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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7
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Winchen T, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Enriquez JE, Falcke H, Hörandel JR, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen JP, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Scholten O, Thoudam S, Trinh T, ter Veen S. Search for Cosmic Particles with the Moon and LOFAR. EPJ Web Conf 2017. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201713504003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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8
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Hörandel JR, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Falcke H, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen J, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Scholten O, ter Veen S, Thoudam S, Trinh T, Winchen T. The mass composition of cosmic rays measured with LOFAR. EPJ Web Conf 2017. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201713602001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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9
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Scholten O, Trinh T, Bonardi A, Buitink S, Correa P, Corstanje A, Dorosti Hasankiadeh Q, Falcke H, Hörandel J, Mitra P, Mulrey K, Nelles A, Rachen J, Rossetto L, Schellart P, Thoudam S, ter Veen S, de Vries K, Winchen T. Measurement of the circular polarization in radio emission from extensive air showers confirms emission mechanisms. Int J Clin Exp Med 2016. [DOI: 10.1103/physrevd.94.103010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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10
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Schellart P, Trinh TNG, Buitink S, Corstanje A, Enriquez JE, Falcke H, Hörandel JR, Nelles A, Rachen JP, Rossetto L, Scholten O, Ter Veen S, Thoudam S, Ebert U, Koehn C, Rutjes C, Alexov A, Anderson JM, Avruch IM, Bentum MJ, Bernardi G, Best P, Bonafede A, Breitling F, Broderick JW, Brüggen M, Butcher HR, Ciardi B, de Geus E, de Vos M, Duscha S, Eislöffel J, Fallows RA, Frieswijk W, Garrett MA, Grießmeier J, Gunst AW, Heald G, Hessels JWT, Hoeft M, Holties HA, Juette E, Kondratiev VI, Kuniyoshi M, Kuper G, Mann G, McFadden R, McKay-Bukowski D, McKean JP, Mevius M, Moldon J, Norden MJ, Orru E, Paas H, Pandey-Pommier M, Pizzo R, Polatidis AG, Reich W, Röttgering H, Scaife AMM, Schwarz DJ, Serylak M, Smirnov O, Steinmetz M, Swinbank J, Tagger M, Tasse C, Toribio MC, van Weeren RJ, Vermeulen R, Vocks C, Wise MW, Wucknitz O, Zarka P. Probing Atmospheric Electric Fields in Thunderstorms through Radio Emission from Cosmic-Ray-Induced Air Showers. Phys Rev Lett 2015; 114:165001. [PMID: 25955053 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.114.165001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We present measurements of radio emission from cosmic ray air showers that took place during thunderstorms. The intensity and polarization patterns of these air showers are radically different from those measured during fair-weather conditions. With the use of a simple two-layer model for the atmospheric electric field, these patterns can be well reproduced by state-of-the-art simulation codes. This in turn provides a novel way to study atmospheric electric fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Schellart
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - T N G Trinh
- University of Groningen, KVI Center for Advanced Radiation Technology, 9700 AB Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - S Buitink
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Astrophysical Institute, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - A Corstanje
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - J E Enriquez
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - H Falcke
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Nikhef, Science Park Amsterdam, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - J R Hörandel
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Nikhef, Science Park Amsterdam, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A Nelles
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - J P Rachen
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - L Rossetto
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - O Scholten
- University of Groningen, KVI Center for Advanced Radiation Technology, 9700 AB Groningen, The Netherlands
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Dienst ELEM, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - S Ter Veen
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - S Thoudam
- Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - U Ebert
- Center for Mathematics and Computer Science (CWI), PO Box 94079, 1090 GB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), PO Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - C Koehn
- Center for Mathematics and Computer Science (CWI), PO Box 94079, 1090 GB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - C Rutjes
- Center for Mathematics and Computer Science (CWI), PO Box 94079, 1090 GB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A Alexov
- Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - J M Anderson
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam, DeutschesGeoForschungsZentrum GFZ, Department 1: Geodesy and Remote Sensing, Telegrafenberg, A17, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
| | - I M Avruch
- SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - M J Bentum
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - G Bernardi
- Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - P Best
- Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory of Edinburgh, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, United Kingdom
| | - A Bonafede
- University of Hamburg, Gojenbergsweg 112, 21029 Hamburg, Germany
| | - F Breitling
- Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
| | - J W Broderick
- Astrophysics, University of Oxford, Denys Wilkinson Building, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, United Kingdom
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - M Brüggen
- University of Hamburg, Gojenbergsweg 112, 21029 Hamburg, Germany
| | - H R Butcher
- Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University, Mt. Stromlo Observatory, via Cotter Road, Weston, Australian Capital Territory 2611, Australia
| | - B Ciardi
- Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Karl Schwarzschild Straße 1, 85741 Garching, Germany
| | - E de Geus
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- SmarterVision BV, Oostersingel 5, 9401 JX Assen, The Netherlands
| | - M de Vos
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - S Duscha
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - J Eislöffel
- Thüringer Landessternwarte, Sternwarte 5, D-07778 Tautenburg, Germany
| | - R A Fallows
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - W Frieswijk
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - M A Garrett
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, PO Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - J Grießmeier
- LPC2E, Universíte d'Orleans/CNRS, 45071 Orleans Cedex 2, France
- Station de Radioastronomie de Nancay, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS/INSU, USR 704, Universíte Orleans, OSUC, Route de Souesmes, 18330 Nancay, France
| | - A W Gunst
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - G Heald
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - J W T Hessels
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Anton Pannekoek Institute, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94249, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Hoeft
- Thüringer Landessternwarte, Sternwarte 5, D-07778 Tautenburg, Germany
| | - H A Holties
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - E Juette
- Astronomisches Institut der Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitaetsstrasse 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - V I Kondratiev
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Astro Space Center of the Lebedev Physical Institute, Profsoyuznaya Street 84/32, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - M Kuniyoshi
- National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan
| | - G Kuper
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - G Mann
- Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
| | - R McFadden
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - D McKay-Bukowski
- Sodankylä Geophysical Observatory, University of Oulu, Tähteläntie 62, 99600 Sodankylä, Finland
- STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - J P McKean
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Mevius
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - J Moldon
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - M J Norden
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - E Orru
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - H Paas
- Center for Information Technology (CIT), University of Groningen, PO Box 72, 9700 AB Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - M Pandey-Pommier
- Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon, Observatoire de Lyon, 9 Avenue Charles André, 69561 Saint Genis Laval Cedex, France
| | - R Pizzo
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - A G Polatidis
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - W Reich
- Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - H Röttgering
- Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, PO Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A M M Scaife
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - D J Schwarz
- Fakultät für Physik, Universität Bielefeld, Postfach 100131, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - M Serylak
- Astrophysics, University of Oxford, Denys Wilkinson Building, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, United Kingdom
| | - O Smirnov
- Department of Physics and Electronics, Rhodes University, PO Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa
- SKA South Africa, 3rd Floor, The Park, Park Road, Pinelands 7405, South Africa
| | - M Steinmetz
- Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
| | - J Swinbank
- Anton Pannekoek Institute, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94249, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M Tagger
- LPC2E, Universíte d'Orleans/CNRS, 45071 Orleans Cedex 2, France
| | - C Tasse
- LESIA, UMR CNRS 8109, Observatoire de Paris, 92195 Meudon, France
| | - M C Toribio
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - R J van Weeren
- Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - R Vermeulen
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
| | - C Vocks
- Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
| | - M W Wise
- ASTRON, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, Postbus 2, 7990 AA Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
- Anton Pannekoek Institute, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94249, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - O Wucknitz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - P Zarka
- LESIA, UMR CNRS 8109, Observatoire de Paris, 92195 Meudon, France
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