Immunostimulatory effect of the aqueous leaf extract of Phyllanthus niruri on the specific and nonspecific immune responses of Oreochromis mossambicus Peters

Plant derived immunostimulants are a promising alternative to chemotherapeutics and also perhaps vaccines. In the present study, we examined the immunostimulating properties of aqueous leaf extract of Phyllanthus niruri, an Indian traditional medicinal herb, on neutrophil activation and antibody response of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters). Serial ten-fold diluted doses of P. niruri ranging from 0.002 mg to 20 mg were administered to two groups of O. mossambicus (n=8). One group of fishes was administered with sheep red blood cells and the primary and secondary antibody responses were estimated using direct haemagglutination assay. The other group of fishes was administered heat-aggregated BSA to assess the ability of plant extract to elicit neutrophil activation. Our results indicate a significant enhancement of both neutrophil activation and antibody response. Among the various doses tested, fishes administered 20 mg/kg body weight caused the maximal enhancement of both primary and secondary antibody response and 0.002 mg/kg showed higher neutrophil activation compared to that of the control group. This short study indicates that aqueous leaf extract of P. niruri has the potential to be used as an immunostimulant and after confirming its immunostimulatory properties by a battery of tests on other nonspecific and specific parameters and disease-protective property by challenging the fish with virulent fish pathogens, it can be used either as a routine feed supplement to activate the immune system of farmed fishes or as an adjuvant to enhance the efficacy of vaccines.

Immune response and disease resistance of Oreochromis mossambicus to Aeromonas hydrophila after exposure to hexavalent chromium

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of chronic exposure to sublethal concentrations of hexavalent chromium (K2Cr2O7) on the immune response and disease resistance of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) to bacterial Aeromonas hydrophila infection. Fish (45 to 50 g) were exposed to 0.005, 0.05, 0.5, and 5 mg l(-1) [0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10% LC50, respectively] of hexavalent chromium Cr (VI) for 28 d. The specific immune response was assessed by antibody response to A. hydrophila by bacterial agglutination assay, and to sheep red blood cells (SRBC) by plaque forming cell (PFC) assay. In addition, nonspecific immune mechanisms were assessed by serum lysozyme activity and reactive nitrogen intermediates, the latter in terms of nitric oxide (NO) production by peripheral blood leucocytes. Overall immunity was assessed by disease resistance against live virulent A. hydrophila. The study clearly indicated that chronic exposure of fish to 0.5 and 5 mg l(-1) of chromium (VI) decreased both nonspecific and specific parameters of the immune system, which resulted in a lower disease resistance to A. hydrophila. Interestingly, 0.05 mg l(-1) of Cr (VI) enhanced disease resistance and both nonspecific and specific immune responses to A. hydrophila. Our study revealed a concentration-dependent modulation of the immune system by chromium (VI), as demonstrated by suppressive or stimulatory effects on lymphocytes, lysozyme, phagocytic killing mechanisms, and disease resistance in O. mossambicus.

Head kidney neutrophils of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) are functionally modulated by the haemoflagellateTrypanoplasma borreli

In the present work responses of carp (Cyprinus carpio) head kidney-derived neutrophils to the blood parasite T. borreli, and the consequences of these responses for parasite survival and other host response mechanisms, were studied. In co-cultures of head kidney leucocytes (HKL) with viable and lysed T. borreli a prominent shape change of neutrophilic granulocytes towards increased size and complexity was observed. In addition, the longevity of neutrophils in vitro was prolonged in the presence of T. borreli antigens. In these cultures, neutrophils also exhibited an increased phagocytosis activity. An up regulation of the production of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) was observed in T. borreli- and mitogen-stimulated HKL cultures. However, addition of live, fluorescence-labelledT. borreli to previously stimulated HKL cultures, revealed neither killing nor phagocytosis of the parasite by activated neutrophils. Moreover, viable T. borreli, when added to HKL cultures of infected carp, reduced their phagocytosis activity and NO production. Supernatants of co-cultures between T. borreli and HKL also contained mediators, which suppressed a mitogen-induced proliferative response of peripheral blood leucocytes (PBL) in vitro. Thus, while T. borreli itself appeared not to be sensitive to responses of activated neutrophils, the flagellates interferes with the production of immunomodulatory signals of these cells, probably resulting in a partial immunosuppression, which may favour the parasite development in vivo.

The haemoflagellate Trypanoplasma borreli induces the production of nitric oxide, which is associated with modulation of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) leucocyte functions

In an attempt to characterise the role of nitric oxide (NO) in immune responses of carp, carp leucocytes obtained during an acute T. borreli infection were examined, for their capacity to generate NO. In a second set of experiments the impact NO on viability of the parasite and on the modulation of functional carp leucocyte responses were tested in vitro. Both in carp head-kidneys and in the peripheral blood, the fractions of lymphoblasts among separated leucocytes were increased. However, the relative proportions of granulocytes among head-kidney leucocytes (HKL) significantly decreased during infection, whereas granulocytes appeared among peripheral blood leucocytes (PBL). The cellular dynamics of HKL and PBL of infected carp were paralleled by an enhanced spontaneous NO release in vitro. NO production was further increased after addition of viable parasites to these cultures. The hypothesis that NO had a possible role in granulocyte activation and lymphocyte proliferation in carp was supported by the reduction of mitogen-induced proliferative responses of PBL from healthy carp in the presence of NO donor substances. The negative effects of NO on lymphocyte proliferation were contrasted by enhancing effects on granulocyte functions: the inhibition of NO generation in T. borreli-stimulated HKL cultures by the l-arginine analogue L-NMMA reduced the viability of granulocytes and their phagocytic activity. Even massive amounts of nitric oxide produced by donor substances (up to 600 micromol l(-1) NO(-)(2)) caused no reduction in the numbers of viable T. borreli flagellates in vitro. Thus, in carp, T. borreli seems to induce high amounts of NO in vivo which are apparently not harmful for the parasite but which may interfere with co-ordinated interactions of activated cells aiming at the defence of the parasite.

Surface characters and extracellular toxins involved in the pathogenesis of Aeromonas hydrophila

A small number of serotypically distinct strains of A. hydrophila obtained from diseased freshwater fish were examined for their pathogenic properties comprising of cell surface characteristics and extracellular toxins. Test strains exhibited homogeneity in their cell surface characteristics despite being serologically heterogeneous. Studies on extracellular biological activities revealed qualitative and quantitative differences in production of toxins, probably explaining their antigenic diversity. Three distinct proteases, namely heat stable metallo protease, heat labile serine protease and heat labile metallo protease were identified from the strains.

Immunostimulatory effect of azadirachtin in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)

The effect of azadirachtin, a triterpenoid derived from Azadirachta indica on the immune response was studied in the freshwater teleost, O. mossambicus. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and sheep erythrocytes (SRBC) were used as antigens to evoke immune response. The immune responses in fish were measured by quantifying antibodies produced and counting the peripheral blood leucocytes in control and experimental fish. In general, azadirachtin significantly enhanced the antibody response and leucocyte count in a dose dependent manner. An inverse relationship was observed between the dose of azadirachtin and the degree of immunostimulation. Timing of azadirachtin administration in relation to immunization revealed that the maximum enhancement of antibody response was observed when the stimulant was given two days prior to immunization. The observed immunostimulatory property of azadirachtin has an implication in the maintenance of finfish health in freshwater intensive aquaculture practices.

Differential effect of chromium compounds on the immune response of the African mouth breeder Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of trivalent (chromic chloride) and hexavalent (potassium dichromate) forms of chromium in the African mouth breeder Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters), with reference to the humoral immune response and lymphoid cells/organs. The 96 h LD50 for hexavalent and trivalent chromium was found to be 75 and 1,000microg fish(-1), respectively. Groups of fishes were injected intraperitoneally with 10, 1, 0.1 and 0.01% LD50 hexavalent and trivalent forms of chromium and subsequently immunised with bovine serum albumin (5 mg in 0.2 ml physiological saline). Both forms of chromium suppressed the antibody response, with hexavalent chromium being more suppressive than trivalent chromium. Reduction in spleen weight, splenocyte number and the percentage of blood lymphocytes was observed following administration of both forms of chromium. The possible immunological mechanisms behind the differential suppression of the antibody response and the reduction in spleen weight, splenocyte and lymphocyte counts are discussed.

Partial characterization of serum immunoglobulins of Oreochromis mossambicus

Serum immunoglobulins of O. mossambicus were purified using chromatography methods--CM affinity gel blue chromatography followed by two step purification involving a combination of ion-exchange and gel filtration chromatography. Studies revealed that O. mossambicus produces only one class of high molecular weight macroglobulin as determined by molecular sieving by Sepharose CL 6-B. Immunoelectrophoresis of purified O. mossambicus serum against rabbit anti O. mossambicus serum gave only a single precipitin line. Further analysis of the immunoglobulin by SDS-PAGE showed that the IgM macroglobulin weighs about 900,000 Da, composed of mu-like heavy chain weighing about 90 kDa each and light chains weighing about 30 kDa each.

Modulation of humoral immune response by ascorbic acid in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)

Fish were treated with sublethal doses of ascorbic acid before being immunised with different physical forms of bovine serum albumin (BSA). Ascorbic acid elevates the antibody response to all the physical forms of BSA tested. Generally, there was an inverse relationship between the dose of ascorbic acid and antibody response. In fish administered with multiple doses of ascorbic acid, no significant enhancement of antibody response was observed.

Modulation of humoral immune response by tannery effluent in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)

Fish were treated with various sublethal concentrations of tannery effluent. A concentration-dependent suppression of both primary and secondary antibody responses to bovine serum albumin (BSA) was observed after primary or secondary immunization. The fish were able to compensate the effluent-induced suppression of antibody response when the antigen (BSA) was administered along with an oil adjuvant.

Diel variations in antibody response to bovine serum albumin in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)

Influence of time of antigen administration on antibody response to bovine serum albumin in the fish, O. mossambicus and variations in serum antibody titre during a 24 hr cycle are reported. Significant variations were observed in magnitude of antibody response in groups of fishes immunized at different times of the day. Magnitude of the response was maximal in fish immunized at 16 hr and minimal in those immunized at 4 hr. Serum antibody titres in a 24 hr study also varied markedly with general elevation during day time, reaching the maximum at 12 hr and depression during night with the lowest titre at 4 hr. These results can be positively correlated to diel variation in number of leucocytes or proportion of lymphocytes which in turn is possibly correlated (negatively) to the periodicity in plasma corticosteroid level.