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Kander MC, Mayer AC, Wilkinson AF, Bertke S, Kesler RM, Smith DL, Horn GP, Fent KW. Evaluating workplace protection factors (WPFs) of different firefighter PPE interface control measures for select volatile organic compounds (VOCs). J Occup Environ Hyg 2024; 21:353-364. [PMID: 38560919 PMCID: PMC11073914 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2024.2323109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Structural firefighters are exposed to a complex set of contaminants and combustion byproducts, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Additionally, recent studies have found structural firefighters' skin may be exposed to multiple chemical compounds via permeation or penetration of chemical byproducts through or around personal protective equipment (PPE). This mannequin-based study evaluated the effectiveness of four different PPE conditions with varying contamination control measures (incorporating PPE interface design features and particulate blocking materials) to protect against ingress of several VOCs in a smoke exposure chamber. We also investigated the effectiveness of long-sleeve base layer clothing to provide additional protection against skin contamination. Outside gear air concentrations were measured from within the smoke exposure chamber at the breathing zone, abdomen, and thigh heights. Personal air concentrations were collected from mannequins under PPE at the same general heights and under the base layer at abdomen and thigh heights. Sampled contaminants included benzene, toluene, styrene, and naphthalene. Results suggest that VOCs can readily penetrate the ensembles. Workplace protection factors (WPFs) were near one for benzene and toluene and increased with increasing molecular weight of the contaminants. WPFs were generally lower under hoods and jackets compared to under pants. For all PPE conditions, the pants appeared to provide the greatest overall protection against ingress of VOCs, but this may be due in part to the lower air concentrations toward the floor (and cuffs of pants) relative to the thigh-height outside gear concentrations used in calculating the WPFs. Providing added interface control measures and adding particulate-blocking materials appeared to provide a protective benefit against less-volatile chemicals, like naphthalene and styrene.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Christina Kander
- Department of Environmental & Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Alexander C Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Andrea F Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Stephen Bertke
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, Maryland, USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, Maryland, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Paulussen KJM, Askow AT, Deutz MT, McKenna CF, Garvey SM, Guice JL, Kesler RM, Barnes TM, Tinker KM, Paluska SA, Ulanov AV, Bauer LL, Dilger RN, Burd NA. Acute Microbial Protease Supplementation Increases Net Postprandial Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations After Pea Protein Ingestion in Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. J Nutr 2024:S0022-3166(24)00158-5. [PMID: 38467279 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Digestibility is a primary factor in determining the quality of dietary protein. Microbial protease supplementation may be a strategy for improving protein digestion and subsequent postprandial plasma amino acid availability. OBJECTIVES To assess the effect of co-ingesting a microbial protease mixture with pea protein on postprandial plasma amino acid concentrations. DESIGN A mixture of 3 microbial protease preparations (P3) was tested for proteolytic efficacy in an in vitro static simulation of gastrointestinal digestion. Subsequently, in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, 24 healthy adults (27 ± 4 y; 12 females, 12 males) ingested 25 g pea protein isolate (20 g protein, 2.2 g fat) with either P3 or maltodextrin placebo (PLA). Blood samples were collected at baseline and throughout a 0‒5 h postprandial period and both the early (0-2 h) iAUC and total (0-5 h) iAUC were examined. RESULTS Plasma glucose concentrations decreased in both conditions (P < 0.001), with higher concentrations after P3 ingestion compared with PLA (P < 0.001). Plasma insulin concentrations increased for both conditions (P < 0.001) with no difference between conditions (P = 0.331). Plasma total amino acid (TAA) concentrations increased over time (P < 0.001) with higher concentrations observed for P3 compared with PLA (P = 0.010) during the 0‒5 h period. There was a trend for elevated essential amino acid (EAA) concentrations for P3 compared with PLA (P = 0.099) during the 0‒5 h postprandial period but not for leucine (P = 0.282) or branched-chain amino acids (BCAA, P = 0.410). The early net exposure (0‒2 h iAUC) to amino acids (leucine, BCAA, EAA, and TAA) was higher for P3 compared with PLA (all, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Microbial protease co-ingestion increases plasma TAA concentrations (0-5 h) and leucine, BCAA, EAA, and TAA availability in the early postprandial period (0‒2 h) compared with ingesting pea protein with placebo in healthy adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J M Paulussen
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Andrew T Askow
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Max T Deutz
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Colleen F McKenna
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Sean M Garvey
- Department of Research and Development, BIO-CAT, Inc., Troy, VA, United States
| | - Justin L Guice
- Department of Research and Development, BIO-CAT, Inc., Troy, VA, United States
| | - Richard M Kesler
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States; Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Takeshi M Barnes
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Kelly M Tinker
- Department of Research and Development, BIO-CAT, Inc., Troy, VA, United States
| | - Scott A Paluska
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Alexander V Ulanov
- Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, States
| | - Laura L Bauer
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Ryan N Dilger
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States; Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States; Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Nicholas A Burd
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States; Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.
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Kesler RM, Deaton AS, Ormond RB, Silverstein S, Donlin KL, Horn GP. Impact of firefighter hood design on range of motion, noise production and hearing. Ergonomics 2023:1-10. [PMID: 38050378 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2023.2290987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Firefighter hoods must provide protection from elevated temperatures and products of combustion while simultaneously being comfortable and limiting interference with firefighting movement or completion of fireground activities. This study was to quantify the impact of hood design (traditional knit hood vs. several models of particulate-blocking hoods) on wearability measures such as range of motion, noise production and hearing threshold. Firefighters' perceptions of wearability were also collected. In a controlled laboratory environment, 24 firefighters performed movement and hearing tests. Wearing particulate-blocking hoods resulted in decreased rotational range of motion, and thicker hoods reduced hearing ability. Design, but not necessarily the number of layers, affected noise production by the hood during head movement.Practitioner summary: Particulate-blocking hoods resulted in reduced rotational range of motion relative to the traditional design and the no-hood condition. Hoods with additional layers resulted in decreased hearing ability. Noise production was increased in designs of particulate-blocking hoods with a membrane-based blocking layer independent of the number of layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Kesler
- UL Research Institutes, Fire Safety Research Institute, Columbia, MD, USA
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | | | - Robert Bryan Ormond
- North Carolina State University, Wilson College of Textiles, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | | | - Kathryn L Donlin
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- UL Research Institutes, Fire Safety Research Institute, Columbia, MD, USA
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
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Mayer AC, Fent KW, Wilkinson AF, Chen IC, Siegel MR, Toennis C, Sammons D, Meadows J, Kesler RM, Kerber S, Smith DL, Masoud F, Bhandari D, Wang Y, Blount BC, Calafat AM, Horn GP. Evaluating Exposure to VOCs and Naphthalene for Firefighters Wearing Different PPE Configurations through Measures in Air, Exhaled Breath, and Urine. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:6057. [PMID: 37372644 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20126057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters are at an increased risk of cancer due to their occupational exposure to combustion byproducts, especially when those compounds penetrate the firefighter personal protective equipment (PPE) ensemble. This has led to questions about the impact of base layers (i.e., shorts vs. pants) under PPE ensembles. This study asked 23 firefighters to perform firefighting activities while wearing one of three different PPE ensembles with varying degrees of protection. Additionally, half of the firefighters unzipped their jackets after the scenario while the other half kept their jackets zipped for five additional minutes. Several volatile organic compound (VOC) and naphthalene air concentrations outside and inside of hoods, turnout jackets, and turnout pants were evaluated; biological (urinary and exhaled breath) samples were also collected. VOCs and naphthalene penetrated the three sampling areas (hoods, jackets, pants). Significant (p-value < 0.05) increases from pre- to post-fire for some metabolites of VOCs (e.g., benzene, toluene) and naphthalene were found. Firefighters wearing shorts and short sleeves absorbed higher amounts of certain compounds (p-value < 0.05), and the PPE designed with enhanced interface control features appeared to provide more protection from some compounds. These results suggest that firefighters can dermally absorb VOCs and naphthalene that penetrate the PPE ensemble.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Andrea F Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Miriam R Siegel
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Christine Toennis
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Deborah Sammons
- Division of Science Integration, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Juliana Meadows
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Farzaneh Masoud
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Deepak Bhandari
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Yuesong Wang
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Benjamin C Blount
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Antonia M Calafat
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
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Ghanekar S, Horn GP, Kesler RM, Rajasegar R, Yoo J, Lee T. Quantification of Elevated Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Concentration Typical in a Residential Fire Environment Using Mid-IR Tunable Diode Laser. Appl Spectrosc 2023; 77:382-392. [PMID: 36892307 PMCID: PMC10114253 DOI: 10.1177/00037028231152498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A versatile portable tunable diode laser based measurement system for measuring elevated concentrations of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in a time-resolved manner is developed for application in the fire environment. The direct absorption tunable diode laser spectroscopy (DA-TDLAS) technique is employed using the R11 absorption line centered at 3345.3 cm-1 (2989.27 nm) in the fundamental C-H stretching band (ν1) of the HCN absorption spectrum. The measurement system is validated using calibration gas of known HCN concentration and the relative uncertainty in measurement of HCN concentration is 4.1% at 1500 ppm. HCN concentration is measured with a sampling frequency of 1 Hz, in gas sampled from 1.5 m, 0.9 m, and 0.3 m heights in the Fireground Exposure Simulator (FES) prop at the University of Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, Illinois. The immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) concentration of 50 parts per million (ppm) is exceeded at all the three sampling heights. A maximum concentration of 295 ppm is measured at the 1.5 m height. The HCN measurement system, expanded to measure HCN simultaneously from two sampling locations, is then deployed in two full-scale experiments designed to simulate a realistic residential fire environment at the Delaware County Emergency Services Training Center, Sharon Hill, Pennsylvania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Ghanekar
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Champaign, IL, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Champaign, IL, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Rajavasanth Rajasegar
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Jihyung Yoo
- Department of Automotive Engineering, Hanyang University, South Korea
| | - Tonghun Lee
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Jagim AR, Luedke JA, Dobbs WC, Almonroeder T, Markert A, Zapp A, Askow AT, Kesler RM, Fields JB, Jones MT, Erickson JL. Physiological Demands of a Self-Paced Firefighter Air-Management Course and Determination of Work Efficiency. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2023; 8:jfmk8010021. [PMID: 36810505 PMCID: PMC9944468 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk8010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Firefighters often complete air management courses (AMC) to assess the ability to tolerate personal protective equipment, appropriately manage the breathing system and assess occupational performance. Little information is known relative to the physiological demands of AMCs, nor how to assess work efficiency in order to characterize occupational performance and evaluate progress. PURPOSE To assess the physiological demands of an AMC and examine differences across BMI categories. A secondary aim was to develop an equation to assess work efficiency in firefighters. METHODS Fifty-seven firefighters (Women, n = 4; age: 37.2 ± 8.4 yr.; height: 182.0 ± 6.9 cm; body mass: 90.8 ± 13.1 kg; BMI: 27.8 ± 3.6 kg·m-2) completed an AMC per routine evaluation while wearing a department issued self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective gear. Course completion time, starting pounds per square inch (PSI) on the air cylinder, changes in PSI, and distance traveled were recorded. All firefighters were equipped with a wearable sensor integrated with a triaxial accelerometer and telemetry to assess movement kinematics, heart rate, energy expenditure, and training impulse. The AMC consisted of an initial section involving a hose line advance, rescue (body drag), stair climb, ladder raise, and forcible entry. This section was followed by a repeating loop, which consisted of a stair climb, search, hoist, and recovery walk. Firefighters repeated the course loop until the self-contained breathing apparatus air supply pressure reached 200 PSI, at which time they were instructed to lay down until the PSI reached zero. RESULTS Average completion time was 22.8 ± 1.4 min, with a mean distance of 1.4 ± 0.3 km and an average velocity of 2.4 ± 1.2 m·s-1. Throughout the AMC, the mean heart rate was 158.7 ± 11.5 bpm equating to 86.8 ± 6.3% of the age-predicted max heart rate and a training impulse of 55 ± 3 AU. Mean energy expenditure was 464 ± 86 kcals and work efficiency was 49.8 ± 14.9 km·PSI-1·s. Regression analysis determined that fat-free mass index (R2 = 0.315; β = -5.069), body fat percentage (R2 = 0.139; β = -0.853), fat-free mass (R2 = 0.176; β = -0.744), weight (R2 = 0.329; β = -0.681), and age (R2 = 0.096; β = -0.571) were significant predictors of work efficiency. CONCLUSIONS The AMC is a highly aerobic task with near-maximal heart rates reached throughout the course. Smaller and leaner individuals achieved a higher degree of work efficiency during the AMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R. Jagim
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, WI 54650, USA
- Exercise & Sport Science Department, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-608-392-5013
| | - Joel A. Luedke
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, WI 54650, USA
| | - Ward C. Dobbs
- Exercise & Sport Science Department, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse, La Crosse, WI 54601, USA
| | | | - Adam Markert
- La Crosse Fire Department, La Crosse, WI 54603, USA
| | | | - Andrew T. Askow
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | | | - Jennifer B. Fields
- Exercise Science and Athletic Training, Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109, USA
| | - Margaret T. Jones
- Patriot Performance Laboratory, Frank Pettrone Center for Sports Performance, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
| | - Jacob L. Erickson
- Sports Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, La Crosse, WI 54650, USA
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Wilkinson AF, Fent KW, Mayer AC, Chen IC, Kesler RM, Kerber S, Smith DL, Horn GP. Use of Preliminary Exposure Reduction Practices or Laundering to Mitigate Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Contamination on Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment Ensembles. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:2108. [PMID: 36767475 PMCID: PMC9916157 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20032108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chronic health risks associated with firefighting continue to be documented and studied, however, the complexity of occupational exposures and the relationship between occupational exposure and contaminated personal protective equipment (PPE) remains unknown. Recent work has revealed that common PPE cleaning practices, which are becoming increasingly more common in the fire service, are not effective in removing certain contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), from PPE. To better understand the relationship between contaminated firefighter PPE and potential exposure to PAHs, and to gain further understanding of the efficacy of cleaning practices, we used a standardized fire exposure simulator that created repeatable conditions and measured PPE surface contamination levels via wipe sampling and filters attached to firefighter gear worn by standing mannequins. This study examined the effects of repeated (40 cycles) PPE cleaning (laundering and on-scene preliminary exposure reduction (PER) techniques) and repeated exposures on PAH concentration on different surfaces. Further exploration included examination of contamination breakthrough of turnout jackets (comparing outer shell and interior liner) and evaluation of off-gassing PAHs from used gear after different cleaning treatments. When compared by jacket closure type (zipper and hook and dee), total PAH concentration wiped from gear after exposure and cleanings showed no significant differences. Regression analysis indicated that there was no effect of repeated exposures on PAH contamination levels (all sampling sites combined; before fire 10, 20, and 40; after fire 1, 10, 20, and 40; p-value > 0.05). Both laundering and on-scene PER significantly reduced contamination levels on the exterior pants and helmets and were effective at reducing PAH contamination. The jacket outer shell had significantly higher PAH contamination than the jacket liner. Both laundering and wet soap PER methods (post-fire) are effective in reducing surface contamination and appear to prevent accumulation of contamination after repeated exposures. Semi-volatile PAHs deep within the fibers of bulky PPE are not effectively reduced via PER or machine laundering, therefore, permitting continued off-gassing of these compounds. Further research is needed to identify the most effective laundering methods for firefighter turnout gear that considers the broad spectrum of common contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea F. Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Alexander C. Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH 45226, USA
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, USA
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
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Mayer AC, Fent KW, Wilkinson A, Chen IC, Kerber S, Smith DL, Kesler RM, Horn GP. Characterizing exposure to benzene, toluene, and naphthalene in firefighters wearing different types of new or laundered PPE. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2022; 240:113900. [PMID: 34902715 PMCID: PMC9903203 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The fire service has become more aware of the potential for adverse health outcomes due to occupational exposure to hazardous combustion byproducts. Because of these concerns, personal protective equipment (PPE) manufacturers have developed new protection concepts like particulate-blocking hoods to reduce firefighters' exposures. Additionally, fire departments have implemented exposure reduction interventions like routine laundering of PPE after fire responses. This study utilized a fireground exposure simulator (FES) with 24 firefighters performing firefighting activities on three consecutive days wearing one of three PPE ensembles (stratified by hood design and treatment of PPE): 1) new knit hood, new turnout jacket and new turnout pants 2) new particulate-blocking hood, new turnout jacket and new turnout pants or 3) laundered particulate-blocking hood, laundered turnout jacket and laundered turnout pants. As firefighters performed the firefighting activities, personal air sampling on the outside and inside the turnout jacket was conducted to quantify exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and naphthalene. Pre- and immediately post-fire exhaled breath samples were collected to characterize the absorption of VOCs. Benzene, toluene, and naphthalene were found to diffuse through and/or around the turnout jacket, as inside jacket benzene concentrations were often near levels reported outside the turnout jacket (9.7-11.7% median benzene reduction from outside the jacket to inside the jacket). The PPE ensemble did not appear to affect the level of contamination found inside the jacket for the compounds evaluated here. Benzene concentrations in exhaled breath increased significantly from pre to post-fire for all three groups (p-values < 0.05). The difference of pre-to post-fire benzene exhaled breath concentrations were positively associated with inside jacket and outside jacket benzene concentrations, even though self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) were worn during each response. This suggests the firefighters can absorb these compounds via the dermal route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C. Mayer
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Andrea Wilkinson
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- Division of Field Studies and Engineering, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA,Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- Fire Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories, Columbia, MD, USA
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Gray SM, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, Couëtil LL, Horn GP, Kesler RM, McCoy AM, Stewart MC, Schaeffer DJ. Evaluation of the airway mechanics of modified toggle laryngoplasty constructs using a vacuum chamber airflow model. Vet Surg 2021; 50:1409-1417. [PMID: 34309058 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the airway mechanics of modified toggle LP constructs in an airflow chamber model and compare these to the airway mechanics of standard LP constructs. STUDY DESIGN Ex-vivo experimental study. SAMPLE POPULATION Fifty-one equine cadaveric larynges. METHODS Bilateral LP constructs were performed using a modified toggle (n = 23) or a standard (n = 21) LP technique. Constructs were tested in an airflow model before and after cyclic loading which was designed to mimic postoperative swallowing. The cross-sectional area (CSA), peak translaryngeal airflow (L/s), and impedance (cmH2 0/L/s) were determined and compared between LP constructs before and after cycling. RESULTS The mean CSA of the rima glottidis of the modified toggle LP constructs was 15.2 ± 2.6 cm2 before and 14.7 ± 2.6 cm2 after cyclic loading, and the mean CSA of the rima glottidis of the standard LP constructs was 16.4 ± 2.9 cm2 before and 15.7 ± 2.8 cm2 after cyclic loading. The modified toggle LP constructs had similar peak translaryngeal impedance before and after cyclic loading (p = .13); however, the standard LP constructs had higher peak translaryngeal impedance after cyclic loading (p = .02). CONCLUSION The modified toggle and standard LP constructs had comparable airway mechanics in an ex-vivo model. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Further investigation is warranted to determine the extent to which the modified toggle LP technique restores normal airway function in horses with RLN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Gray
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Santiago D Gutierrez-Nibeyro
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Laurent L Couëtil
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Annette M McCoy
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Matt C Stewart
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - David J Schaeffer
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
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10
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Kesler RM, Mayer A, Fent KW, Chen IC, Deaton AS, Ormond RB, Smith DL, Wilkinson A, Kerber S, Horn GP. Effects of firefighting hood design, laundering and doffing on smoke protection, heat stress and wearability. Ergonomics 2021; 64:755-767. [PMID: 33393449 PMCID: PMC9066276 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2020.1867241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Firefighter hoods must provide protection from elevated temperatures and products of combustion (e.g. particulate) while simultaneously being wearable (comfortable and not interfering with firefighting activities). The purpose of this study was to quantify the impact of (1) hood design (traditional knit hood vs particulate-blocking hood), (2) repeated laundering, and (3) hood removal method (traditional vs overhead doffing) on (a) protection from soot contamination on the neck, (b) heat stress and (c) wearability measures. Using a fireground exposure simulator, 24 firefighters performed firefighting activities in realistic smoke and heat conditions using a new knit hood, new particulate-blocking hood and laundered particulate-blocking hood. Overall, soot contamination levels measured from neck skin were lower when wearing the laundered particulate-blocking hoods compared to new knit hoods, and when using the overhead hood removal process. No significant differences in skin temperature, core temperature, heart rate or wearability measures were found between the hood conditions. Practitioner Summary: The addition of a particulate-blocking layer to firefighters' traditional two-ply hood was found to reduce the PAH contamination reaching the neck but did not affect heat stress measurements or thermal perceptions. Modifying the process for hood removal resulted in a larger reduction in neck skin contamination than design modification. Abbreviations: ANOVA: analysis of variance; B: new particulate-blocking hood and PPE (PPE configuration); FES: fireground exposure simulator; GI: gastrointestinal; K: new knit hood and PPE (PPE configuration); L: laundered particulate-blocking hood and PPE (PPE configuration); LOD: limit of detection; MLE: maximum likelihood estimation; NFPA: National fire protection association; PAH: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PPE: personal protective equipment; SCBA: self-contained breathing apparatus; THL: total heat loss; TPP: thermal protective performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Alex Mayer
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - I-Chen Chen
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Skidmore College; Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
| | - Andrea Wilkinson
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Skidmore College; Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- Underwriters Laboratories Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Underwriters Laboratories Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
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11
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Horn GP, Kerber S, Andrews J, Kesler RM, Newman H, Stewart JW, Fent KW, Smith DL. Impact of Repeated Exposure and Cleaning on Protective Properties of Structural Firefighting Turnout Gear. Fire Technol 2021; 57:791-813. [PMID: 35673328 PMCID: PMC9170133 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-020-01021-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The US fire service has become acutely aware of the need to clean PPE after fires. However, there is concern that damage from repeated cleaning may impact critical protection from fireground risk. Using a protocol that included repeated simulated fireground exposures (between 0 and 40 cycles) and/or repeated cleaning with techniques common in the fire service, we found that several important protective properties of NFPA 1971 compliant turnout gear are significantly changed. Outer shell and thermal liner tear strength showed a statistically significant reduction when laundered as compared to wet or dry decontamination. Larger changes in outer shell tear strength resulted when the coat closure incorporated hook & dee clasps as compared with garments using zippered closures. Total Heat Loss (THL) was reduced for all samples that underwent any form of cleaning while Thermal Protective Performance (TPP) was only increased in the gear that was laundered. These results suggest that some important protective properties of bunker gear can be decreased after repeated exposure/cleaning cycles relative to their levels when tested in a new condition. For the specific materials tested, outer shell trap tear strength in the fill direction and seam strength dropped below NFPA 1971 requirements after 40 laundering cycles. The findings for this study may have utility for setting preconditions for the measurement of certain performance properties in future editions of NFPA 1971.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD, USA
| | | | - Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Hannah Newman
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Jacob W. Stewart
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
- Skidmore College; Saratoga Springs, NY USA
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12
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Firefighting-related environmental and physiological factors associated with cardiovascular strain may promote arrhythmias and myocardial ischemia, which induce sudden cardiac events (SCE) in susceptible individuals. The present study evaluated electrocardiographic (ECG) changes that may reflect increased SCE risk following simulated live-firefighting. METHODS Using a repeated measures design, ECG tracings from 32 firefighters were recorded 12-hours post-firefighting in a residential structure and compared with a 12-hour control period. RESULTS Ventricular arrhythmias were present in 20%, and ST segment changes indicative of myocardial ischemia in 16%, of firefighters 12-hours post-firefighting that were not detected in the control period. CONCLUSION Live-firefighting induces significant ECG changes that include ventricular arrhythmias and ST segment changes, which may reflect myocardial ischemia. The implications of such ECG changes explaining increased cardiovascular risk in firefighters warrants further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise L Smith
- Department of Health and Human Physiological Sciences, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York (Dr Smith, Dr Rowland); Illinois Fire Service Institute (Dr Smith, Dr Horn, Mr Kesler); Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois (Dr Horn), Urbana-Champaign; Department of Kinesiology & Nutrition, Integrative Physiology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (Dr Fernhall), Illinois; Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Ohio (Dr Fent); and Firefighter Safety Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Columbia, Maryland (Mr Kerber)
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13
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Mayer A, Horn GP, Fent KW, Bertke S, Kerber S, Kesler RM, Newman H, Smith DL. Impact of select PPE design elements and repeated laundering in firefighter protection from smoke exposure. J Occup Environ Hyg 2020; 17:505-514. [PMID: 32990508 PMCID: PMC8609407 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2020.1811869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
As the Fire Service becomes more aware of the potential health effects from occupational exposure to hazardous contaminants, personal protective equipment (PPE) manufacturers, and fire departments have responded by developing and implementing improved means of firefighter protection, including more frequent laundering of PPE after exposures. While laboratory testing of new PPE designs and the effect of laundering on PPE fabric provides a useful way to evaluate these approaches, laboratory scale testing does not necessarily translate to full garment protection. Utilizing a fireground smoke exposure simulator, along with air and/or filter-substrate sampling for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzene, this pilot study tested the chemical-protective capabilities of firefighting PPE of different designs (knit hood vs. particulate-blocking hood, turnout jacket with zipper closure vs. hook & dee closure), including the impact of repeatedly exposing and cleaning (through laundering or decontamination on-scene) PPE 40 times. Overall, PAH contamination on filters under hoods in the neck region were higher (median PAHs = 14.7 µg) than samples taken under jackets in the chest region (median PAHs = 7.05 µg). PAH levels measured under particulate-blocking hoods were lower than levels found under knit hoods. Similarly, zippered closures were found to provide a greater reduction in PAHs compared to hook & dee closures. However, neither design element completely eliminated contaminant ingress. Measurements for benzene under turnout jackets were similar to ambient chamber air concentrations, indicating little to no attenuation from the PPE. The effect of laundering or on-scene decontamination on contaminant breakthrough appeared to depend on the type of contaminant. Benzene breakthrough was negatively associated with laundering, while PAH breakthrough was positively associated. More research is needed to identify PPE features that reduce breakthrough, how targeted changes impact exposures, and how fireground exposures relate to biological absorption of contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Mayer
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Steve Bertke
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Hannah Newman
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- Skidmore College, Health and Human Physiological Sciences Department; Saratoga Springs, NY
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14
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Horn GP, Kerber S, Lattz J, Kesler RM, Smith DL, Mayer A, Fent KW. Development of Fireground Exposure Simulator (FES) Prop for PPE Testing and Evaluation. Fire Technol 2020; 56:2331-2344. [PMID: 35673363 PMCID: PMC9170156 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-020-00981-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Research on the performance of personal protective equipment (PPE) for the Fire Service is challenged by the ability to repeatedly and feasibly test new designs, interventions and wear trials in realistic conditions that appropriately simulate end use environments. To support firefighter PPE research and firefighter PPE acclimation/training, a multidisciplinary team has developed a low cost, easily replicable approach for simulating conditions commonly encountered by firefighters operating on the interior of a residential structure fire. The testing enclosure can be used with either stationary mannequins or firefighters conducting typical fireground activities, providing a method to study a wide range of PPE and physiological studies as well as training activities that may support developing new technologies and standardized testing opportunities. Environmental gas concentrations and firefighters' local temperatures were measured during trials and compared to data collected from simulated fireground activities and fireground responses with good agreement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P. Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Steve Kerber
- UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute; Columbia, MD
| | - Jeffery Lattz
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Richard M. Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
| | - Denise L. Smith
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute; Urbana-Champaign, IL
- Skidmore College, Health and Human Physiological Sciences Department; Saratoga Springs, NY
| | - Alex Mayer
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
| | - Kenneth W. Fent
- National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health; Cincinnati, OH
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15
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Kesler RM, Bradley FF, Deetjen GS, Angelini MJ, Petrucci MN, Rosengren KS, Horn GP, Hsiao-Wecksler ET. Impact of SCBA size and fatigue from different firefighting work cycles on firefighter gait. Ergonomics 2018; 61:1208-1215. [PMID: 29569521 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2018.1450999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Risk of slips, trips and falls in firefighters maybe influenced by the firefighter's equipment and duration of firefighting. This study examined the impact of a four self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) three SCBA of increasing size and a prototype design and three work cycles one bout (1B), two bouts with a five-minute break (2B) and two bouts back-to-back (BB) on gait in 30 firefighters. Five gait parameters (double support time, single support time, stride length, step width and stride velocity) were examined pre- and post-firefighting activity. The two largest SCBA resulted in longer double support times relative to the smallest SCBA. Multiple bouts of firefighting activity resulted in increased single and double support time and decreased stride length, step width and stride velocity. These results suggest that with larger SCBA or longer durations of activity, firefighters may adopt more conservative gait patterns to minimise fall risk. Practitioner Summary: The effects of four self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and three work cycles on five gait parameters were examined pre- and post-firefighting activity. Both SCBA size and work cycle affected gait. The two largest SCBA resulted in longer double support times. Multiple bouts of activity resulted in more conservative gait patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Kesler
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
| | - Faith F Bradley
- b Department of Bioengineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Grace S Deetjen
- b Department of Bioengineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Michael J Angelini
- c Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Matthew N Petrucci
- c Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
- d Neuroscience Program , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Karl S Rosengren
- e Department of Psychology , University of Wisconsin Madison , Madison , WI , USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
- c Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Elizabeth T Hsiao-Wecksler
- b Department of Bioengineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
- c Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
- d Neuroscience Program , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana , IL , USA
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16
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Angelini MJ, Kesler RM, Petrucci MN, Rosengren KS, Horn GP, Hsiao-Wecksler ET. Effects of simulated firefighting and asymmetric load carriage on firefighter obstacle crossing performance. Appl Ergon 2018; 70:59-67. [PMID: 29866326 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2018.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Slips, trips, and falls (STF) of firefighters may occur while traversing stationary obstacles. STF risk may be amplified by fatigue from firefighting and carrying an asymmetric load. Vertical and horizontal clearances of the lead (VCL, HCL) and trailing (VCT, HCT) foot and contact with a 30 cm obstacle were examined in 24 firefighters. We examined the impact on obstacle crossing performance due to three exercise protocols (treadmill walking or simulated firefighting in an environmental chamber, and simulated firefighting in a live-fire burn building) and carrying a hose load on the right shoulder. Post-activity fatigue resulted in significant decreases in HCL and VCT. Adding a hose load did not affect choice of lead/trailing foot, but did significantly decreased HCL and increased VCL. The hose load amplified acute fatigue effects by causing a sharper decrease in both VCL and VCT. Clearances were significantly impacted by interaction effects of exercise protocol type and acute fatigue. HCL decreased and VCL remained consistent following both simulated firefighting tasks, but HCL remained unchanged and VCL increased following the treadmill protocol. Contact errors increased with fatigue and load, and more errors occurred following simulated firefighting task protocols compared to treadmill walking. Our findings suggest that both acute fatigue and carrying an additional load can cause decrements in firefighter movement, which may place a firefighter at greater STF risk. Simulated firefighting testing protocols may have greater impact on movement performance than treadmill walking. Knowledge of these results may assist in the development of a reliable, laboratory based, and standardizable simulated firefighting exercise protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Angelini
- University of Illinois, Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- University of Illinois, Illinois Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Matthew N Petrucci
- University of Illinois, Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | | | - Gavin P Horn
- University of Illinois, Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA; University of Illinois, Illinois Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
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17
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Park K, Sy JF, Horn GP, Kesler RM, Petrucci MN, Rosengren KS, Hsiao-Wecksler ET. Assessing gait changes in firefighters after firefighting activities and while carrying asymmetric loads. Appl Ergon 2018; 70:44-50. [PMID: 29866324 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2018.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
One of the most common causes of injuries among firefighters is slips, trips, and falls on the fireground. Acute fatigue from firefighting activities and/or carrying asymmetric loads might impact gait characteristics increasing slip, trip, and fall risk. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of fatigue from simulated firefighting activities and carrying asymmetric loads (fire hose over one shoulder) on firefighters' gait behavior. Both firefighting activities and asymmetric hoseload carriage led to shorter step lengths, stride lengths, single leg support time, and longer double leg support time, suggesting firefighters adopted cautious gait strategies. Simulated firefighting activities performed in either a live-fire training tower or laboratory-based environmental chamber using a firefighting activity simulator resulted in nearly identical effects on gait kinematics. This result suggests that gait assessment in a laboratory-based environmental chamber can be used as effective simulations in place of specialized burn facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julian F Sy
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Illinois Fire Service Institute, Champaign, IL, USA
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18
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Kesler RM, Deetjen GS, Bradley FF, Angelini MJ, Petrucci MN, Rosengren KS, Horn GP, Hsiao-Wecksler ET. Impact of SCBA size and firefighting work cycle on firefighter functional balance. Appl Ergon 2018; 69:112-119. [PMID: 29477318 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Slips, trips and falls are leading causes of fireground injuries. A functional balance test (FBT) was used to investigate the effects of self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) size and design, plus firefighting work cycle. During the FBT, subjects walked along a narrow platform and turned in defined spaces, with and without an overhead obstacle. Thirty firefighters wore three varying-sized standard SCBAs and a low-profile prototype SCBA during three simulated firefighting work/rest cycles. Firefighters were tested pre- and post-firefighting activity (one bout, two bouts with a 5-min break, or back-to-back bouts with no break). Subjects committed more errors and required longer completion times with larger SCBAs. Use of the prototype SCBA lead to lower times and fewer errors. Performing a second bout of firefighting increased completion time. Firefighters need to consider how SCBA and amount of physical activity on the fireground may influence balance in order to reduce the risk of injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Kesler
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Grace S Deetjen
- Dept. of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Faith F Bradley
- Dept. of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Michael J Angelini
- Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Matthew N Petrucci
- Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Karl S Rosengren
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- Illinois Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA; Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Elizabeth T Hsiao-Wecksler
- Dept. of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
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19
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Boes MK, Bollaert RE, Kesler RM, Learmonth YC, Islam M, Petrucci MN, Motl RW, Hsiao-Wecksler ET. Six-Minute Walk Test Performance in Persons With Multiple Sclerosis While Using Passive or Powered Ankle-Foot Orthoses. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2018; 99:484-490. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2017.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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20
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Horn GP, Kesler RM, Kerber S, Fent KW, Schroeder TJ, Scott WS, Fehling PC, Fernhall B, Smith DL. Thermal response to firefighting activities in residential structure fires: impact of job assignment and suppression tactic. Ergonomics 2018; 61:404-419. [PMID: 28737481 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2017.1355072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters' thermal burden is generally attributed to high heat loads from the fire and metabolic heat generation, which may vary between job assignments and suppression tactic employed. Utilising a full-sized residential structure, firefighters were deployed in six job assignments utilising two attack tactics (1. Water applied from the interior, or 2. Exterior water application before transitioning to the interior). Environmental temperatures decreased after water application, but more rapidly with transitional attack. Local ambient temperatures for inside operation firefighters were higher than other positions (average ~10-30 °C). Rapid elevations in skin temperature were found for all job assignments other than outside command. Neck skin temperatures for inside attack firefighters were ~0.5 °C lower when the transitional tactic was employed. Significantly higher core temperatures were measured for the outside ventilation and overhaul positions than the inside positions (~0.6-0.9 °C). Firefighters working at all fireground positions must be monitored and relieved based on intensity and duration. Practitioner Summary: Testing was done to characterise the thermal burden experienced by firefighters in different job assignments who responded to controlled residential fires (with typical furnishings) using two tactics. Ambient, skin and core temperatures varied based on job assignment and tactic employed, with rapid elevations in core temperature in many roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Horn
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Richard M Kesler
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
| | - Steve Kerber
- b UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute , Columbia , MD , USA
| | - Kenneth W Fent
- c National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Tad J Schroeder
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
| | | | | | - Bo Fernhall
- f Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition , University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- a Illinois Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana , IL , USA
- e Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , NY , USA
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Kesler RM, Ensari I, Bollaert RE, Motl RW, Hsiao-Wecksler ET, Rosengren KS, Fernhall B, Smith DL, Horn GP. Physiological response to firefighting activities of various work cycles using extended duration and prototype SCBA. Ergonomics 2018; 61:390-403. [PMID: 28762892 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2017.1360519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters' self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) protects the respiratory system during firefighting but increases the physiological burden. Extended duration SCBA (>30 min) have increased air supply, potentially increasing the duration of firefighting work cycles. To examine the effects of SCBA configuration and work cycle (length and rest), 30 firefighters completed seven trials using different SCBA and one or two bouts of simulated firefighting following work cycles common in the United States. Heart rate, core temperature, oxygen consumption, work output and self-reported perceptions were recorded during all activities. Varying SCBA resulted in few differences in these parameters. However, during a second bout, work output significantly declined while heart rates and core temperatures were elevated relative to a single bout. Thirty seven per cent of the subjects were unable to complete the second bout in at least one of the two-bout conditions. These firefighters had lower fitness and higher body mass than those who completed all assigned tasks. Practitioner Summary: The effects of extended duration SCBA and work/rest cycles on physiological parameters and work output have not been examined. Cylinder size had minimal effects, but extended work cycles with no rest resulted in increased physiological strain and decreased work output. This effect was more pronounced in firefighters with lower fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Kesler
- a Illinois, Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
| | - Ipek Ensari
- b Department of Kinesiology and Community Health , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
| | - Rachel E Bollaert
- b Department of Kinesiology and Community Health , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
| | - Robert W Motl
- c Department of Physical Therapy , University of Alabama - Birmingham , Birmingham , AL , USA
| | - Elizabeth T Hsiao-Wecksler
- d Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
| | - Karl S Rosengren
- e Department of Psychology , University of Wisconsin - Madison , Madison , WI , USA
| | - Bo Fernhall
- f Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition , University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Denise L Smith
- a Illinois, Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
- g Health and Exercise Sciences Department , Skidmore College , Saratoga Springs , NY , USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- a Illinois, Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
- d Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign , Champaign , IL , USA
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Kesler RM, Horn GP, Rosengren KS, Hsiao-Wecksler ET. Analysis of foot clearance in firefighters during ascent and descent of stairs. Appl Ergon 2016; 52:18-23. [PMID: 26360190 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2015.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Slips, trips, and falls are a leading cause of injury to firefighters with many injuries occurring while traversing stairs, possibly exaggerated by acute fatigue from firefighting activities and/or asymmetric load carriage. This study examined the effects that fatigue, induced by simulated firefighting activities, and hose load carriage have on foot clearance while traversing stairs. Landing and passing foot clearances for each stair during ascent and descent of a short staircase were investigated. Clearances decreased significantly (p < 0.05) post-exercise for nine of 12 ascent parameters and increased for two of eight descent parameters. Load carriage resulted in significantly decreased (p < 0.05) clearance over three ascent parameters, and one increase during descent. Decreased clearances during ascent caused by fatigue or load carriage may result in an increased trip risk. Increased clearances during descent may suggest use of a compensation strategy to ensure stair clearance or an increased risk of over-stepping during descent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Kesler
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gavin P Horn
- University of Illinois, Fire Service Institute, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA; University of Illinois, Dept. of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Karl S Rosengren
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA
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Horn GP, Kesler RM, Motl RW, Hsiao-Wecksler ET, Klaren RE, Ensari I, Petrucci MN, Fernhall B, Rosengren KS. Physiological responses to simulated firefighter exercise protocols in varying environments. Ergonomics 2015; 58:1012-1021. [PMID: 25597759 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2014.997806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
For decades, research to quantify the effects of firefighting activities and personal protective equipment on physiology and biomechanics has been conducted in a variety of testing environments. It is unknown if these different environments provide similar information and comparable responses. A novel Firefighting Activities Station, which simulates four common fireground tasks, is presented for use with an environmental chamber in a controlled laboratory setting. Nineteen firefighters completed three different exercise protocols following common research practices. Simulated firefighting activities conducted in an environmental chamber or live-fire structures elicited similar physiological responses (max heart rate: 190.1 vs 188.0 bpm, core temperature response: 0.047°C/min vs 0.043°C/min) and accelerometry counts. However, the response to a treadmill protocol commonly used in laboratory settings resulted in significantly lower heart rate (178.4 vs 188.0 bpm), core temperature response (0.037°C/min vs 0.043°C/min) and physical activity counts compared with firefighting activities in the burn building. Practitioner Summary: We introduce a new approach for simulating realistic firefighting activities in a controlled laboratory environment for ergonomics assessment of fire service equipment and personnel. Physiological responses to this proposed protocol more closely replicate those from live-fire activities than a traditional treadmill protocol and are simple to replicate and standardise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Horn
- a Fire Service Institute , University of Illinois , Urbana-Champaign , IL , USA
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Kesler RM, Hsiao-Wecksler ET, Motl RW, Klaren RE, Ensari I, Horn GP. A modified SCBA facepiece for accurate metabolic data collection from firefighters. Ergonomics 2014; 58:148-159. [PMID: 25323675 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2014.964783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
To better assess the energy expenditure and exertion of firefighters during simulated firefighting activities, a commercial firefighter self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) facepiece was modified to interface with a portable metabolic monitoring device (Cosmed K4b(2)) while still functioning as a positive pressure SCBA air supply. To validate the device, standard National Fire Protection Association 1981 SCBA function tests were conducted and 14 subjects performed variable-workload assessments using all combinations of two test devices (Cosmed K4b(2) and metabolic cart) and two masks (modified SCBA facepiece and stock manufacturer-supplied breath collection). Metabolic data collected with the Cosmed K4b(2) via the modified facepiece were found to be accurate when compared to a ParvoMedics Truemax 2400 metabolic cart (average per cent difference: 4.6%). This modified facepiece design is suitable for use in metabolic studies requiring the utilisation of an SCBA system. Furthermore, the well-established overestimation of oxygen consumption from the Cosmed K4b(2) system was replicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Kesler
- a Fire Service Institute, University of Illinois , Urbana-Champaign , IL , USA
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