Living With Elephants: Evidence-Based Planning to Conserve Wild Elephants in a Megadiverse South East Asian Country

Theory of Change (ToC) and Social Return of Investment (SROI) are planning tools that help projects craft strategic approaches in order to create the most impact. In 2018, the Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants (MEME) carried out planning exercises using these tools to develop an Asian elephant conservation project with agriculture communities. First, a problem tree was constructed together with stakeholders, with issues arranged along a cause-and-effect continuum. There were 17 main issues identified, ranging from habitat connectivity and fragmentation, to the lack of tolerance toward wild elephants. All issues ultimately stemmed from a human mindset that favors human-centric development. The stakeholders recognize the need to extend conservation efforts beyond protected areas and move toward coexistence with agriculture communities for the survival of the wild elephants. We mapped previous Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC) management methods and other governmental policies in Malaysia against the problem tree, and provided an overview of the different groups of stakeholders. The ToC was developed and adapted for each entity, while including Asian elephants as a stakeholder in the project. From the SROI estimation, we extrapolated the intrinsic value of the wild Asian elephant population in Johor, Malaysia, to be conservatively worth at least MYR 7.3 million (USD 1.8 million) per year. From the overall calculations, the potential SROI value of the project is 18.96 within 5 years, meaning for every ringgit invested in the project, it generates MYR 18.96 (USD 4.74) worth of social return value. There are caveats with using these value estimations outside of the SROI context, which was thoroughly discussed. The SROI provides projects with the ability to justify to funders the social return values of its activities, which we have adapted to include the intrinsic value of an endangered megafauna. Moreover, SROI encourages projects to consider unintended impacts (i.e., replacement, displacement, and deadweight), and acknowledge contributions from stakeholders. The development of the problem tree and ToC via SROI approach, can help in clarifying priorities and encourage thinking out of the box. For this case study, we presented the thinking process, full framework and provided evidences to support the Theory of Change.

Panthera tigris jacksoni Population Crash and Impending Extinction due to Environmental Perturbation and Human-Wildlife Conflict

Simple Summary

The Malayan tiger, with less than 200 individuals in Malaysia, is in an intermediate population crash. Anthropogenic disturbances (poaching, roadkill, and human–tiger conflict), environmental perturbation (decreasing habitat quality), and infectious diseases have been identified as factors leading to impending extinction. Preliminary findings from stakeholders indicate Peninsular Malaysia has an existing Malayan Tiger conservation management programme. However, to enhance the protection and conservation of the Malayan Tiger, the authority should re-assess the existing legislation, regulation, and management plan, and realign them to prevent population decline.

Abstract

The critically endangered Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni), with an estimated population of less than 200 individuals left in isolated rainforest habitats in Malaysia, is in an intermediate population crash leading to extinction in the next decade. The population has decreased significantly by illegal poaching, environmental perturbation, roadkill, and being captured during human–wildlife conflicts. Forty-five or more individuals were extracted from the wild (four animals captured due to conflict, one death due to canine distemper, one roadkilled, and 39 poached) in the 12 years between 2008–2019. The Malayan tigers are the first wildlife species to test positive for COVID-19 and are subject to the Canine Distemper Virus. These anthropogenic disturbances (poaching and human–tiger conflict) and environmental perturbation (decreasing habitat coverage and quality) have long been identified as impending extinction factors. Roadkill and infectious diseases have emerged recently as new confounding factors threatening Malayan tiger extinction in the near future. Peninsular Malaysia has an existing Malayan tiger conservation management plan; however, to enhance the protection and conservation of Malayan tigers from potential extinction, the authority should reassess the existing legislation, regulation, and management plan and realign them to prevent further population decline, and to better enable preparedness and readiness for the ongoing pandemic and future threats.

Viability and management of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the Endau Rompin landscape, Peninsular Malaysia

The need for conservation scientists to produce research of greater relevance to practitioners is now increasingly recognized. This study provides an example of scientists working alongside practitioners and policy makers to address a question of immediate relevance to elephant conservation in Malaysia and using the results to inform wildlife management policy and practice including the National Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Peninsular Malaysia. Since ensuring effective conservation of elephants in the Endau Rompin Landscape (ERL) in Peninsular Malaysia is difficult without data on population parameters we (1) conducted a survey to assess the size of the elephant population, (2) used that information to assess the viability of the population under different management scenarios including translocation of elephants out of the ERL (a technique long used in Malaysia to mitigate human–elephant conflict (HEC)), and (3) assessed a number of options for managing the elephant population and HEC in the future. Our dung-count based survey in the ERL produced an estimate of 135 (95% CI [80–225]) elephants in the 2,500 km² area. The population is thus of national significance, containing possibly the second largest elephant population in Peninsular Malaysia, and with effective management elephant numbers could probably double. We used the data from our survey plus other sources to conduct a population viability analysis to assess relative extinction risk under different management scenarios. Our results demonstrate that the population cannot sustain even very low levels of removal for translocation or anything other than occasional poaching. We describe, therefore, an alternative approach, informed by this analysis, which focuses on in situ management and non-translocation-based methods for preventing or mitigating HEC. The recommended approach includes an increase in law enforcement to protect the elephants and their habitat, maintenance of habitat connectivity between the ERL and other elephant habitat, and a new focus on adaptive management.

Viability and management of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in the Endau Rompin landscape, Peninsular Malaysia.. [DOI: 10.7287/peerj.preprints.27729v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

The need for conservation scientists to produce research of greater relevance to practitioners is now increasingly recognized. This study provides an example of scientists working alongside practitioners and policy makers to address a question of immediate relevance to elephant conservation in Malaysia and using the results to inform wildlife management policy and practice including through the National Elephant Conservation Action Plan for Peninsular Malaysia. Since ensuring effective conservation of elephants in the Endau Rompin Landscape (ERL) in Peninsular Malaysia is difficult without data on population parameters we conducted a survey to assess the size of the elephant population, used that information to assess the viability of the population under different management scenarios including translocation of elephants out of the ERL (a technique long used in Malaysia to mitigate human–elephant conflict (HEC)), and then assessed a number of options for managing the elephant population and HEC in the future. Our dung-count based survey in the ERL produced an estimate of 135 (95% CI = [80, 225]) elephants in the 2500 km² area. The population is thus of national significance, containing possibly the second largest elephant population in Peninsular Malaysia, and with effective management elephant numbers could probably double. We used the data from our survey plus other sources to conduct a population viability analysis to assess relative extinction risk under different management scenarios. Our results demonstrate that the population cannot sustain even very low levels of removal for translocation or anything other than occasional poaching. We describe, therefore, an alternative approach, informed by this analysis, that focuses on in situ management and non-translocation-based methods for preventing or mitigating HEC; an increase in law enforcement to protect the elephants and their habitat; maintenance of habitat connectivity between the ERL and other elephant habitat; and a new focus on adaptive management.

<b>Observations of occurrence and daily activity patterns of ungulates in the Endau Rompin Landscape, peninsular Malaysia</b>

Camera trap data was used to study occurrence and daily activity patterns in the Endau Rompin Landscape of peninsular Malaysia during 2011, 2013 and 2015 to estimate Malayan Tiger Panthera tigris jacksoni population densities.  By-catch data were also collected for seven ungulate species: Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak, Bearded Pig Sus barbatus, Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Greater Mousedeer Tragulus napu, Lesser Mousedeer Tragulus kanchil, Malayan Tapir Tapirus indicus and Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor.  Of these, Bayesian single-season occupancy analysis suggested that Barking Deer were the most widespread and Mousedeer spp. the least widespread during the study period.  Bearded Pig, Malayan Tapir and Wild Boar were recorded in more than half of the camera trap area (Sambar Deer was excluded due to small sample size).  Daily activity patterns based on independent captures in 2015 suggest that Barking Deer, Bearded Pig and Wild Boar are mostly diurnal, mousedeer species are crepuscular and Malayan Tapir strongly nocturnal.  

Concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in Asian elephant's dung are stable for up to 8 h in a tropical environment

The use of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) has facilitated the development of non-invasive methods to study physiological conditions of endangered wildlife populations. One limitation is that fGCM concentrations are known to change over time and to vary according to different environmental conditions. The aim of this study was to perform a controlled dung decay experiment to understand the impact of time (since defecation) and two common environmental variables (exposure to water and direct sunlight) on fGCM concentrations of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Eighty dung piles from 10 Malaysian elephants were randomly exposed to a 2 × 2 combination of treatments (wet-shade, dry-shade, wet-sun and dry-sun) and repeatedly subsampled from the time of defecation through to 2 days post-defecation (n = 685 faecal subsamples). Overall, the mean concentration of fGCMs was stable in samples of up to 8 h old from defecation time, regardless of environmental treatment (water or direct sunlight); thereafter, the overall mean fGCM concentrations increased, peaking 1 day after defecation (31.8% higher than at defecation time), and subsequently decreased (reaching values 9.2% below defecation time on the second day). Overall, the treatment of sun exposure resulted in higher fGCM concentration compared with shade, whereas water exposure (compared with no water exposure) had no impact on fGCM concentrations. Hence, in field studies we recommend collecting dung samples <8 h old and recording shade conditions (e.g. sun vs. shade) as a covariate for the subsequent interpretation of fGCM measurements. This study has helped to identify the optimal window for sampling in which we can have a higher confidence in interpreting the results as being a genuine reflection of glucocorticoid status in the elephant.