Comparison of transcriptomic profiles between HFPO-DA and prototypical PPARα, PPARγ, and cytotoxic agents in wild-type and PPARα knockout mouse hepatocytes

Recent in vitro transcriptomic analyses for the short-chain polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS), HFPO-DA (ammonium, 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)-propanoate), support conclusions from in vivo data that HFPO-DA-mediated liver effects in mice are part of the early key events of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) activator-induced rodent hepatocarcinogenesis mode of action (MOA). Transcriptomic responses in HFPO-DA-treated rodent hepatocytes have high concordance with those treated with a PPARα agonist and lack concordance with those treated with PPARγ agonists or cytotoxic agents. To elucidate whether HFPO-DA-mediated transcriptomic responses in mouse liver are PPARα-dependent, additional transcriptomic analyses were conducted on samples from primary PPARα knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mouse hepatocytes exposed for 12, 24 or 72 hours with various concentrations of HFPO-DA, or well-established agonists of PPARα (GW7647) and PPARγ (rosiglitazone), or cytotoxic agents (acetaminophen or d-galactosamine). Pathway and predicted upstream regulator-level responses were highly concordant between HFPO-DA and GW7647 in WT hepatocytes. A similar pattern was observed in PPARα KO hepatocytes, albeit with a distinct temporal and concentration-dependent delay potentially mediated by compensatory responses. This delay was not observed in PPARα KO hepatocytes exposed to rosiglitazone, acetaminophen, d-galactosamine. The similarity in transcriptomic signaling between HFPO-DA and GW7647 in both the presence and absence of PPARα in vitro indicates these compounds share a common MOA.

Comparison of transcriptomic profiles between HFPO-DA and prototypical PPARα, PPARγ, and cytotoxic agents in mouse, rat, and pooled human hepatocytes

Like many per- or polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), toxicity studies with HFPO-DA (ammonium, 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)-propanoate), a short-chain PFAS used in the manufacture of some types of fluorinated polymers, indicate that the liver is the primary target of toxicity in rodents following oral exposure. Although the current weight of evidence supports the PPARα mode of action (MOA) for liver effects in HFPO-DA-exposed mice, alternate MOAs have also been hypothesized including PPARγ or cytotoxicity. To further evaluate the MOA for HFPO-DA in rodent liver, transcriptomic analyses were conducted on samples from primary mouse, rat and pooled human hepatocytes treated for 12, 24 or 72 hours with various concentrations of HFPO-DA, or agonists of PPARα (GW7647), PPARγ (rosiglitazone), or cytotoxic agents (ie, acetaminophen or d-galactosamine). Concordance analyses of enriched pathways across chemicals within each species demonstrated greatest concordance between HFPO-DA and PPARα agonist GW7647-treated hepatocytes compared to the other chemicals evaluated. These findings were supported by benchmark concentration modeling and predicted upstream regulator results. In addition, transcriptomic analyses across species demonstrated a greater transcriptomic response in rodent hepatocytes treated with HFPO-DA or agonists of PPARα or PPARγ, indicating rodent hepatocytes are more sensitive to HFPO-DA or PPARα/γ agonist treatment. These results are consistent with previously published transcriptomic analyses and further support that liver effects in HFPO-DA-exposed rodents are mediated through rodent-specific PPARα signaling mechanisms as part of the MOA for PPARα activator-induced rodent hepatocarcinogenesis. Thus, effects observed in mouse liver are not appropriate endpoints for toxicity value development for HFPO-DA in human health risk assessment.

A multi-tiered hierarchical Bayesian approach to derive toxic equivalency factors for dioxin-like compounds

In 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO) re-evaluated Toxic Equivalency factors (TEFs) developed for dioxin-like compounds believed to act through the Ah receptor based on an updated database of relative estimated potency (REP)(REP2004 database). This re-evalution identified the need to develop a consistent approach for dose-response modeling. Further, the WHO Panel discussed the significant heterogeneity of experimental datasets and dataset quality underlying the REPs in the database. There is a critical need to develop a quantitative, and quality weighted approach to characterize the TEF for each congener. To address this, a multi-tiered approach that combines Bayesian dose-response fitting and meta-regression with a machine learning model to predict REPS' quality categorizations was developed to predict the most likely relationship between each congener and its reference and derive model-predicted TEF uncertainty distributions. As a proof of concept, this 'Best-Estimate TEF workflow' was applied to the REP2004 database to derive TEF point-estimates and characterizations of uncertainty for all congeners. Model-TEFs were similar to the 2005 WHO TEFs, with the data-poor congeners having larger levels of uncertainty. This transparent and reproducible computational workflow incorporates WHO expert panel recommendations and represents a substantial improvement in the TEF methodology.

Integrative Chemical-Biological Grouping of Complex High Production Volume Substances from Lower Olefin Manufacturing Streams

Human cell-based test methods can be used to evaluate potential hazards of mixtures and products of petroleum refining ("unknown or variable composition, complex reaction products, or biological materials" substances, UVCBs). Analyses of bioactivity and detailed chemical characterization of petroleum UVCBs were used separately for grouping these substances; a combination of the approaches has not been undertaken. Therefore, we used a case example of representative high production volume categories of petroleum UVCBs, 25 lower olefin substances from low benzene naphtha and resin oils categories, to determine whether existing manufacturing-based category grouping can be supported. We collected two types of data: nontarget ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry of both neat substances and their organic extracts and in vitro bioactivity of the organic extracts in five human cell types: umbilical vein endothelial cells and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes, endothelial cells, neurons, and cardiomyocytes. We found that while similarity in composition and bioactivity can be observed for some substances, existing categories are largely heterogeneous. Strong relationships between composition and bioactivity were observed, and individual constituents that determine these associations were identified. Overall, this study showed a promising approach that combines chemical composition and bioactivity data to better characterize the variability within manufacturing categories of petroleum UVCBs.

Updated systematic assessment of human, animal and mechanistic evidence demonstrates lack of human carcinogenicity with consumption of aspartame

Aspartame has been studied extensively and evaluated for its safety in foods and beverages yet concerns for its potential carcinogenicity have persisted, driven primarily by animal studies conducted at the Ramazzini Institute (RI). To address this controversy, an updated systematic review of available human, animal, and mechanistic data was conducted leveraging critical assessment tools to consider the quality and reliability of data. The evidence base includes 12 animal studies and >40 epidemiological studies reviewed by the World Health Organization which collectively demonstrate a lack of carcinogenic effect. Assessment of >1360 mechanistic endpoints, including many guideline-based genotoxicity studies, demonstrate a lack of activity associated with endpoints grouped to key characteristics of carcinogens. Other non-specific mechanistic data (e.g., mixed findings of oxidative stress across study models, tissues, and species) do not provide evidence of a biologically plausible carcinogenic pathway associated with aspartame. Taken together, available evidence supports that aspartame consumption is not carcinogenic in humans and that the inconsistent findings of the RI studies may be explained by flaws in study design and conduct (despite additional analyses to address study limitations), as acknowledged by authoritative bodies.

Grouping of UVCB substances with dose-response transcriptomics data from human cell-based assays

The application of in vitro biological assays as new approach methodologies (NAMs) to support grouping of UVCB (unknown or variable composition, complex reaction products, and biological materials) substances has recently been demonstrated. In addition to cell-based phenotyping as NAMs, in vitro transcriptomic profiling is used to gain deeper mechanistic understanding of biological responses to chemicals and to support grouping and read-across. However, the value of gene expression profiling for characterizing complex substances like UVCBs has not been explored. Using 141 petroleum substance extracts, we performed dose-response transcriptomic profiling in human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived hepatocytes, cardiomyocytes, neurons, and endothelial cells, as well as cell lines MCF7 and A375. The goal was to determine whether transcriptomic data can be used to group these UVCBs and to further characterize the molecular basis for in vitro biological responses. We found distinct transcriptional responses for petroleum substances by manufacturing class. Pathway enrichment informed interpretation of effects of substances and UVCB petroleum-class. Transcriptional activity was strongly correlated with concentration of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC), especially in iPSC-derived hepatocytes. Supervised analysis using transcriptomics, alone or in combination with bioactivity data collected on these same substances/cells, suggest that transcriptomics data provide useful mechanistic information, but only modest additional value for grouping. Overall, these results further demonstrate the value of NAMs for grouping of UVCBs, identify informative cell lines, and provide data that could be used for justifying selection of substances for further testing that may be required for registration.

Predictive modeling of biological responses in the rat liver using in vitro Tox21 bioactivity: Benefits from high-throughput toxicokinetics

Computational methods are needed to more efficiently leverage data from in vitro cell-based models to predict what occurs within whole body systems after chemical insults. This study set out to test the hypothesis that in vitro high-throughput screening (HTS) data can more effectively predict in vivo biological responses when chemical disposition and toxicokinetic (TK) modeling are employed. In vitro HTS data from the Tox21 consortium were analyzed in concert with chemical disposition modeling to derive nominal, aqueous, and intracellular estimates of concentrations eliciting 50% maximal activity. In vivo biological responses were captured using rat liver transcriptomic data from the DrugMatrix and TG-Gates databases and evaluated for pathway enrichment. In vivo dosing data were translated to equivalent body concentrations using HTTK modeling. Random forest models were then trained and tested to predict in vivo pathway-level activity across 221 chemicals using in vitro bioactivity data and physicochemical properties as predictor variables, incorporating methods to address imbalanced training data resulting from high instances of inactivity. Model performance was quantified using the area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) and compared across pathways for different combinations of predictor variables. All models that included toxicokinetics were found to outperform those that excluded toxicokinetics. Biological interpretation of the model features revealed that rather than a direct mapping of in vitro assays to in vivo pathways, unexpected combinations of multiple in vitro assays predicted in vivo pathway-level activities. To demonstrate the utility of these findings, the highest-performing model was leveraged to make new predictions of in vivo biological responses across all biological pathways for remaining chemicals tested in Tox21 with adequate data coverage (n = 6617). These results demonstrate that, when chemical disposition and toxicokinetics are carefully considered, in vitro HT screening data can be used to effectively predict in vivo biological responses to chemicals.

Comparing Machine Learning Models for Aromatase (P450 19A1)

Aromatase, or cytochrome P450 19A1, catalyzes the aromatization of androgens to estrogens within the body. Changes in the activity of this enzyme can produce hormonal imbalances that can be detrimental to sexual and skeletal development. Inhibition of this enzyme can occur with drugs and natural products as well as environmental chemicals. Therefore, predicting potential endocrine disruption via exogenous chemicals requires that aromatase inhibition be considered in addition to androgen and estrogen pathway interference. Bayesian machine learning methods can be used for prospective prediction from the molecular structure without the need for experimental data. Herein, the generation and evaluation of multiple machine learning models utilizing different sources of aromatase inhibition data are described. These models are applied to two test sets for external validation with molecules relevant to drug discovery from the public domain. In addition, the performance of multiple machine learning algorithms was evaluated by comparing internal five-fold cross-validation statistics of the training data. These methods to predict aromatase inhibition from molecular structure, when used in concert with estrogen and androgen machine learning models, allow for a more holistic assessment of endocrine-disrupting potential of chemicals with limited empirical data and enable the reduction of the use of hazardous substances.

Comparison of Machine Learning Models for the Androgen Receptor

The androgen receptor (AR) is a target of interest for endocrine disruption research, as altered signaling can affect normal reproductive and neurological development for generations. In an effort to prioritize compounds with alternative methodologies, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) used in vitro data from 11 assays to construct models of AR agonist and antagonist signaling pathways. While these EPA ToxCast AR models require in vitro data to assign a bioactivity score, Bayesian machine learning methods can be used for prospective prediction from molecule structure alone. This approach was applied to multiple types of data corresponding to the EPA's AR signaling pathway with proprietary software, Assay Central. The training performance of all machine learning models, including six other algorithms, was evaluated by internal 5-fold cross-validation statistics. Bayesian machine learning models were also evaluated with external predictions of reference chemicals to compare prediction accuracies to published results from the EPA. The machine learning model group selected for further studies of endocrine disruption consisted of continuous AC50 data from the February 2019 release of ToxCast/Tox21. These efforts demonstrate how machine learning can be used to predict AR-mediated bioactivity and can also be applied to other targets of endocrine disruption.

Grouping of UVCB substances with new approach methodologies (NAMs) data

One of the most challenging areas in regulatory science is assessment of the substances known as UVCB (unknown or variable composition, complex reaction products and biological materials). Because the inherent complexity and variability of UVCBs present considerable challenges for establishing sufficient substance similarity based on chemical characteristics or other data, we hypothesized that new approach methodologies (NAMs), including in vitro test-derived biological activity signatures to characterize substance similarity, could be used to support grouping of UVCBs. We tested 141 petroleum substances as representative UVCBs in a compendium of 15 human cell types representing a variety of tissues. Petroleum substances were assayed in dilution series to derive point of departure estimates for each cell type and phenotype. Extensive quality control measures were taken to ensure that only high-confidence in vitro data were used to determine whether current groupings of these petroleum substances, based largely on the manufacturing process and physico-chemical properties, are justifiable. We found that bioactivity data-based groupings of petroleum substances were generally consistent with the manufacturing class-based categories. We also showed that these data, especially bioactivity from human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived and primary cells, can be used to rank substances in a manner highly concordant with their expected in vivo hazard potential based on their chemical compositional profile. Overall, this study demonstrates that NAMs can be used to inform groupings of UVCBs, to assist in identification of representative substances in each group for testing when needed, and to fill data gaps by read-across.

Machine Learning Models for Estrogen Receptor Bioactivity and Endocrine Disruption Prediction

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) periodically releases in vitro data across a variety of targets, including the estrogen receptor (ER). In 2015, the EPA used these data to construct mathematical models of ER agonist and antagonist pathways to prioritize chemicals for endocrine disruption testing. However, mathematical models require in vitro data prior to predicting estrogenic activity, but machine learning methods are capable of prospective prediction from the molecular structure alone. The current study describes the generation and evaluation of Bayesian machine learning models grouped by the EPA's ER agonist pathway model using multiple data types with proprietary software, Assay Central. External predictions with three test sets of in vitro and in vivo reference chemicals with agonist activity classifications were compared to previous mathematical model publications. Training data sets were subjected to additional machine learning algorithms and compared with rank normalized scores of internal five-fold cross-validation statistics. External predictions were found to be comparable or superior to previous studies published by the EPA. When assessing six additional algorithms for the training data sets, Assay Central performed similarly at a reduced computational cost. This study demonstrates that machine learning can prioritize chemicals for future in vitro and in vivo testing of ER agonism.

Cardiovascular Effects of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Their Major Metabolites

BACKGROUND

Xenobiotic metabolism is complex, and accounting for bioactivation and detoxification processes of chemicals remains among the most challenging aspects for decision making with in vitro new approach methods data.

OBJECTIVES

Considering the physiological relevance of human organotypic culture models and their utility for high-throughput screening, we hypothesized that multidimensional chemical-biological profiling of chemicals and their major metabolites is a sensible alternative for the toxicological characterization of parent molecules vs. metabolites in vitro.

METHODS

In this study, we tested 25 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) [PCB 3, 11, 52, 126, 136, and 153 and their relevant metabolites (hydroxylated, methoxylated, sulfated, and quinone)] in concentration-response (10 nM-100μM) for effects in human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes (CMs) and endothelial cells (ECs) (iPSC-derived and HUVECs). Functional phenotypic end points included effects on beating parameters and intracellular Ca2+ flux in CMs and inhibition of tubulogenesis in ECs. High-content imaging was used to evaluate cytotoxicity, mitochondrial integrity, and oxidative stress.

RESULTS

Data integration of a total of 19 physicochemical descriptors and 36 in vitro phenotypes revealed that chlorination status and metabolite class are strong predictors of the in vitro cardiovascular effects of PCBs. Oxidation of PCBs, especially to di-hydroxylated and quinone metabolites, was associated with the most pronounced effects, whereas sulfation and methoxylation of PCBs resulted in diminished bioactivity.

DISCUSSION

Risk characterization analysis showed that although in vitro derived effective concentrations exceeded the levels measured in the general population, risks cannot be ruled out due to the potential for population variability in susceptibility and the need to fill data gaps using read-across approaches. This study demonstrated a strategy for how in vitro data can be used to characterize human health risks from PCBs and their metabolites. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7030.

Identifying Attributes That Influence In Vitro-to-In Vivo Concordance by Comparing In Vitro Tox21 Bioactivity Versus In Vivo DrugMatrix Transcriptomic Responses Across 130 Chemicals

Recent efforts aimed at integrating in vitro high-throughput screening (HTS) data into chemical toxicity assessments are necessitating increased understanding of concordance between chemical-induced responses observed in vitro versus in vivo. This investigation set out to (1) measure concordance between in vitro HTS data and transcriptomic responses observed in vivo, focusing on the liver, and (2) identify attributes that can influence concordance. Signal response profiles from 130 substances were compared between in vitro data produced through Tox21 and liver transcriptomic data through DrugMatrix, collected from rats exposed to a chemical for ≤5 days. A global in vitro-to-in vivo comparative analysis based on pathway-level responses resulted in an overall average percent agreement of 79%, ranging on a per-chemical basis between 41% and 100%. Whereas concordance amongst inactive chemicals was high (89%), concordance amongst chemicals showing in vitro activity was only 13%, suggesting that follow-up in vivo and/or orthogonal in vitro assays would improve interpretations of in vitro activity. Attributes identified to influence concordance included experimental design attributes (eg, cell type), target pathways, and physicochemical properties (eg, logP). The attribute that most consistently increased concordance was dose applicability, evaluated by filtering for experimental doses administered to rats that were within 10-fold of those related to likely bioactivity, derived using Tox21 data and high-throughput toxicokinetic modeling. Together, findings suggest that in vitro screening approaches to predict in vivo toxicity are viable particularly when certain attributes are considered, including whether activity versus inactivity is observed, experimental design, chemical properties, and dose applicability.

High-Content Assay Multiplexing for Muscle Toxicity Screening in Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Skeletal Myoblasts

Skeletal muscle-associated toxicity is an underresearched area in the field of high-throughput toxicity screening; hence, the potential adverse effects of drugs and chemicals on skeletal muscle are largely unknown. Novel organotypic microphysiological in vitro models are being developed to replicate the contractile function of skeletal muscle; however, the throughput and a need for specialized equipment may limit the utility of these tissue chip models for screening. In addition, recent developments in stem cell biology have resulted in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived skeletal myoblasts that enable high-throughput in vitro screening. This study set out to develop a high-throughput multiplexed assay using iPSC-derived skeletal myoblasts that can be used as a first-pass screen to assess the potential for chemicals to affect skeletal muscle. We found that cytotoxicity and cytoskeletal integrity are most useful and reproducible assays for the skeletal myoblasts when evaluating overall cellular health or gauging disruptions in actin polymerization following 24 h of exposure. Both assays are based on high-content imaging and quantitative image processing to derive quantitative phenotypes. Both assays showed good to excellent assay robustness and reproducibility measured by interplate and interday replicability, coefficients of variation of negative controls, and Z'-factors for positive control chemicals. Concentration response assessment of muscle-related toxicants showed specificity of the observed effects compared to the general cytotoxicity. Overall, this study establishes a high-throughput multiplexed assay using skeletal myoblasts that may be used for screening and prioritization of chemicals for more complex tissue chip-based and in vivo evaluation.

Spatial distribution of metals within the liver acinus and their perturbation by PCB126

Animal studies show that exposure to the environmental pollutant 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126) causes alterations in hepatic metals as measured in acid-digested volume-adjusted tissue. These studies lack the detail of the spatial distribution within the liver. Here we use X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) to assess the spatial distribution of trace elements within liver tissue. Liver samples from male Sprague Dawley rats, treated either with vehicle or PCB126, were formalin fixed and paraffin embedded. Serial sections were prepared for traditional H&E staining or placed on silicon nitride windows for XFM. With XFM, metal gradients between the portal triad and the central vein were seen, especially with copper and iron. These gradients change with exposure to PCB126, even reverse. This is the first report of how micronutrients vary spatially within the liver and how they change in response to toxicant exposure. In addition, high concentrations of zinc clusters were discovered in the extracellular space. PCB126 treatment did not affect their presence, but did alter their elemental makeup suggesting a more general biological function. Further work is needed to properly evaluate the gradients and their alterations as well as classify the zinc clusters to determine their role in liver function and zinc homeostasis.

High-Content Assay Multiplexing for Vascular Toxicity Screening in Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial Cells and Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

Endothelial cells (ECs) play a major role in blood vessel formation and function. While there is longstanding evidence for the potential of chemical exposures to adversely affect EC function and vascular development, the hazard potential of chemicals with respect to vascular effects is not routinely evaluated in safety assessments. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived ECs promise to provide a physiologically relevant, organotypic culture model that is amenable for high-throughput (HT) EC toxicant screening and may represent a viable alternative to traditional in vitro models, including human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). To evaluate the utility of iPSC-ECs for multidimensional HT toxicity profiling of chemicals, both iPSC-ECs and HUVECs were exposed to selected positive (angiogenesis inhibitors, cytotoxic agents) and negative compounds in concentration response for either 16 or 24 h in a 384-well plate format. Furthermore, chemical effects on vascularization were quantified using EC angiogenesis on biological (Geltrex™) and synthetic (SP-105 angiogenesis hydrogel) extracellular matrices. Cellular toxicity was assessed using high-content live cell imaging and the CellTiter-Glo^® assay. Assay performance indicated good to excellent assay sensitivity and reproducibility for both cell types investigated. Both iPSC-derived ECs and HUVECs formed tube-like structures on Geltrex™ and hydrogel, an effect that was inhibited by angiogenesis inhibitors and cytotoxic agents in a concentration-dependent manner. The quality of HT assays in HUVECs was generally higher than that in iPSC-ECs. Altogether, this study demonstrates the capability of ECs for comprehensive assessment of the biological effects of chemicals on vasculature in a HT compatible format.

Assessment of the Mitigative Capacity of Dietary Zinc on PCB126 Hepatotoxicity and the Contribution of Zinc to Toxicity

Hepatic levels of the essential micronutrient, zinc, are diminished by several hepatotoxicants, and the dietary supplementation of zinc has proven protective in those cases. 3,3',4,4',5-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126), a liver toxicant, alters hepatic nutrient homeostasis and lowers hepatic zinc levels. The current study was designed to determine the mitigative potential of dietary zinc in the toxicity associated with PCB126 and the role of zinc in that toxicity. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three dietary groups and fed diets deficient in zinc (7 ppm Zn), adequate in zinc (30 ppm Zn), and supplemented in zinc (300 ppm). The animals were maintained for 3 weeks on these diets, then given a single IP injection of vehicle or 1 or 5 μmol/kg PCB126. After 2 weeks, the animals were euthanized. Dietary zinc increased the level of ROS, the activity of CuZnSOD, and the expression of metallothionein but decreased the levels of hepatic manganese. PCB126 exposed rats exhibited classic signs of exposure, including hepatomegaly, increased hepatic lipids, increased ROS and CYP induction. Liver histology suggests some mild ameliorative properties of both zinc deficiency and zinc supplementation. Other metrics of toxicity (relative liver and thymus weights, hepatic lipids, and hepatic ROS) did not support this trend. Interestingly, the zinc supplemented high dose PCB126 group had mildly improved histology and less efficacious induction of investigated genes than did the low dose PCB126 group. Overall, decreases in zinc caused by PCB126 likely contribute little to the ongoing toxicity, and the mitigative/preventive capacity of zinc against PCB126 exposure seems limited.

Metallothionein's role in PCB126 induced hepatotoxicity and hepatic micronutrient disruption

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), industrial chemicals and persistent environmental pollutants, are found in rural and urban settings. Rodent studies have shown that exposure to PCB126, a dioxin-like PCB, causes a significant disruption of hepatic micronutrient homeostasis and an increase in metallothionein (MT), an antioxidant protein and metal carrier. A MT knockout mouse strain was used to assess metallothionein’s role in micronutrient disruption and overall hepatotoxicity. Twenty four 129S male mice (12 wild type (WT) and 12 MT knockout (MTKO)) were placed on a purified diet (AIN-93G) for 3 weeks to achieve hepatic metal equilibrium. Mice were then given a single IP injection of either vehicle or 150 μmol/kg PCB126 in vehicle. The animals were sacrificed 2 weeks later and organs processed for analysis. Liver histology, hepatic lipids, gene expression, micronutrient and ROS status were investigated. Liver weights, liver lipids, ROS, and hepatocyte vacuolation were increased with PCB126 exposure along with AhR responsive genes. The MTKO animals had more severe histological changes in the liver and elevated liver lipids than their wild type counterparts. Hepatic and renal metals levels (Cu, Zn, Se and Mn) were mostly reduced by PCB126 treatment. Renal micronutrients were more affected by PCB126 treatment in the MTKO animals. This research suggests that MT may not be the sole/primary cause of the metal disruption caused by PCB126 exposure in mice, but may provide protection against overall hepatotoxicity.

Dietary Manganese Modulates PCB126 Toxicity, Metal Status, and MnSOD in the Rat

PCB126 (3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl) is a potent aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist and induces oxidative stress. Because liver manganese (Mn) levels decrease in response to PCB126, a Mn dietary study was designed to investigate the role of Mn in PCB126 toxicity. Male Sprague Dawley rats received diets containing 0, 10, or 150 ppm added Mn for 3 weeks, followed by a single ip injection of corn oil or PCB126 (5 µmol/kg body weight). After 2 weeks, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Fe levels in the heart, liver, and liver mitochondria, and Mn-containing superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and metallothionein mRNA, MnSOD protein, and MnSOD activity were determined. Mn levels in liver, heart, and liver mitochondria were strongly decreased by the Mn-deficient diet. Small effects on Fe levels and a stepwise increase in MnSOD activity with dietary Mn were also visible. PCB126 caused profound changes in Cu (up), Zn, Fe, and Mn (down) in liver, but not in heart, and differing effects (Cu, Zn, and Fe up, Mn down) in liver mitochondria. Liver MnSOD and metallothionein mRNA levels and MnSOD protein were increased but MnSOD activity was decreased by PCB126. PCB126-induced liver enlargement was dose-dependently reduced with increasing dietary Mn. These changes in metals homeostasis and MnSOD activity in liver but not heart may be a/the mechanism of PCB126 liver-specific toxicity. Specifically, transport of Fenton metals (Cu, Fe) into and Mn out of the mitochondria, a probable mechanism for lower MnSOD activity, may be a/the cause of PCB126-induced oxidative stress. The role of metallothioneins needs further evaluation. Dietary Mn slightly alleviated PCB126-induced toxicities.

Progression of micronutrient alteration and hepatotoxicity following acute PCB126 exposure

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are industrial chemicals that have become a persistent threat to human health due to ongoing exposure. A subset of PCBs, known as dioxin-like PCBs, pose a special threat given their potent hepatic effects. Micronutrients, especially Cu, Zn and Se, homeostatic dysfunction is commonly seen after exposure to dioxin-like PCBs. This study investigates whether micronutrient alteration is the byproduct of the ongoing hepatotoxicity, marked by lipid accumulation, or a concurrent, yet independent event of hepatic damage. A time course study was carried out using male Sprague-Dawley rats with treatments of PCB126, the prototypical dioxin-like PCB, resulting in 6 different time points. Animals were fed a purified diet, based on AIN-93G, for three weeks to ensure micronutrient equilibration. A single IP injection of either tocopherol-stripped soy oil vehicle (5 mL/kg) or 5 μmol/kg PCB126 dose in vehicle was given at various time points resulting in exposures of 9h, 18 h, 36 h, 3 days, 6 days, and 12 days. Mild hepatic vacuolar change was seen as early as 36 h with drastic changes at the later time points, 6 and 12 days. Micronutrient alterations, specifically Cu, Zn, and Se, were not seen until after day 3 and only observed in the liver. No alterations were seen in the duodenum, suggesting that absorption and excretion may not be involved. Micronutrient alterations occur with ROS formation, lipid accumulation, and hepatomegaly. To probe the mechanistic underpinnings, alteration of gene expression of several copper chaperones was investigated; only metallothionein appeared elevated. These data suggest that the disruption in micronutrient status is a result of the hepatic injury elicited by PCB126 and is mediated in part by metallothionein.

PCB126-Induced Disruption in Gluconeogenesis and Fatty Acid Oxidation Precedes Fatty Liver in Male Rats

3,3',4,4',5-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126), a dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and a potent aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonist, is implicated in the disruption of both carbohydrate and lipid metabolism which ultimately leads to wasting disorders, metabolic disease, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. However, the mechanisms are unclear. Because liver is the target organ for PCB toxicity and responsible for metabolic homeostasis, we hypothesized that early disruption of glucose and lipid homeostasis contributes to later manifestations such as hepatic steatosis. To test this hypothesis, groups of male Sprague Dawley rats, fed on AIN-93G diet, were injected (intraperitoneal.) with a single bolus of PCB126 (5 µmol/kg) at various time intervals between 9 h and 12 days prior to euthanasia. An early decrease in serum glucose and a gradual decrease in serum triglycerides were observed over time. Liver lipid accumulation was most severe at 6 and 12 days of exposure. Transcript levels of cytosolic phosphoenol-pyruvate carboxykinase (Pepck-c/Pck1) and glucose transporter (Glut2/Slc2a2) involved in gluconeogenesis and hepatic glucose transport were time-dependently downregulated between 9 h and 12 days of PCB126 exposure. Additionally, transcript levels of Pparα, and its targets acyl-CoA oxidase (Acox1) and hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase 2 (Hmgcs2), were also downregulated, indicating changes in peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis. In a separate animal study, we found that the measured changes in the transcript levels of Pepck-c, Glut2, Pparα, Acox1, and Hmgcs2 were also dose dependent. Furthermore, PCB126-induced effects on Pepck-c were demonstrated to be AhR dependent in rat H4IIE hepatocytes. These results indicate that PCB126-induced wasting and steatosis are preceded initially by (1) decreased serum glucose caused by decreased hepatic glucose production, followed by (2) decreased peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation.

Does dietary copper supplementation enhance or diminish PCB126 toxicity in the rodent liver?

Copper is essential for the function of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and several antioxidant proteins. However, in its free form copper can participate in Fenton-like reactions that produce reactive hydroxyl radicals. Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists, including the most potent polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congener, 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126), increase copper levels in rodent livers. This is accompanied by biochemical and toxic changes. To assess the involvement of copper in PCB toxicity, male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed an AIN-93G diet with differing dietary copper levels: low (2 ppm), adequate (6 ppm), and high (10 ppm). After three weeks, rats from each group were given a single ip injection of corn oil (control), 1, or 5 μmol/kg body weight PCB126. Two weeks following injections, biochemical and morphological markers of hepatic toxicity, trace metal status, and hepatic gene expression of metalloproteins were evaluated. Increasing dietary copper was associated with elevated tissue levels of copper and ceruloplasmin. In the livers of PCB126-treated rats, the hallmark signs of AhR activation were present, including increased cytochrome P450 and lipid levels and decreased glutathione. In addition, a doubling of hepatic copper levels was seen, and overall metal homeostasis was disturbed, resulting in decreased hepatic selenium, manganese, zinc, and iron. Expression of key metalloproteins was either decreased (cytochrome c oxidase), unchanged (ceruloplasmin and CuZnSOD), or increased (tyrosinase and metallothioneins 1 and 2) with exposure to PCB126. Increases in metallothionein may contribute/reflect the increased copper seen. Alterations in dietary copper did not amplify or abrogate the hepatic toxicity of PCB126. PCB126 toxicity, i.e., oxidative stress and steatosis, is clearly associated with disturbed metal homeostasis. Understanding the mechanisms of this disturbance may provide tools to prevent liver toxicity by other AhR agonists.