Microglia M1/M2 polarization contributes to electromagnetic pulse-induced brain injury

The development of electronic technology has attracted attention on the biological effects of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and electromagnetic pulse (EMP). It remains controversial whether EMP irradiation is neurotoxic or beneficial for recovery from injuryies such as cerebral ischemia. Microglia is innate immune cells in the brain, exhibiting either neurotoxicity or neuroprotection effect during various central nervous system diseases, depending on their activation into a classical (M1) or alternative (M2) phenotype, respectively. The Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) pathway is important for microglia activation. In this study, we investigated the effect of EMP on neuronal apoptosis and microglia polarization in vivo and in vitro, using an EMP of 400 kV/m and 1 hertz for 200 pulses. Short EMP irradiation (≤24 h) resulted in microglial conversion from the resting to the M1-type state, activation of the TLR4/MyD88/NFκB pathway, higher levels of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α, as well as neuronal apoptosis induction. In contrast, long EMP irradiation (3 days) resulted in microglial activation into the M2-type, decreased apoptosis and inflammatory mediator production, and increased levels of the neuroprotective effectors IL-10, transforming growth factor beta, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. EMP induces both neuronal damage and neuronal recovery by influencing the switch of M1/M2 polarization and the TLR4/MyD88/NFκB pathway.

MIR-92 stimulates VEGF by inhibiting von Hippel-Lindau gene product in epithelial ovarian cancer

The molecular mechanisms underlying regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) remain poorly defined. VEGF, a potent angiogenic factor, is up-regulated in a variety of cancers and contributes to angiogenesis in tumor tissues. The level of VEGF correlates with progression of malignancy. We previously reported that miR-92 is abnormally elevated in the plasma of EOC patients. Here, we tested the hypothesis that miR-92 inhibits von Hippel-Lindau gene product (VHL), a tumor suppressor gene, and in turn de-represses HIF-1α, a known key transcription factor for VEGF, to stimulate VEGF expression. Using a variety of biomedical methods including Western blot, RT-PCR, gene silencing, luciferase assay, and chromatin immunoprecipitation in both surgically-resected specimens and EOC cell culture, we established that EOC cells have elevated levels of HIF-1α and miR-92 expression, but the expression of VHL is reduced. We further demonstrated that miR-92 can target the VHL transcript to repress its expression. We also found that stabilized HIF-1α can form an active complex with transcriptional coactivator p300 and phosphorylated-STAT3 at the VEGF promoter to stimulate its expression. In addition, matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2 and MMP-9 are positively regulated by HIF-1α. These results suggest that miR-92 can potentially be considered as a novel therapeutical target in treatment of EOS.

A model of virtual organisations

A model is presented of a virtual organisation that contains four variables: connectivity, purpose, technology and boundary. Four cases are analysed to illustrate the applicability and usefulness of the model. Based on the model, we make predictions for the stability of virtual organisations and creations of new forms of this organisational type.

Noradrenergic facilitation of motor neurons: localization of adrenergic receptors in neurons and nonneuronal cells in the trigeminal motor nucleus

Both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors (ARs) are involved in the facilitation of the monosynaptic jaw-closing reflex in the trigeminal motor nucleus (MoV) caused by norepinephrine (NE). The amplitude of muscle spindle afferent-evoked EPSPs in masseter motor neurons is 65% greater when noradrenergic axons to the motor nucleus are concomitantly activated and seems to be due to a presynaptic mechanism (Vornov, J. J., and J. Sutin. 1986. J. Neurosci. 6: 30-37). To determine the subtypes of ARs located on motor neurons and other cells, the cytotoxic lectin Ricin communis was injected into the masseter nerve of the trigeminal motor root to eliminate motor neurons in the masseter subnucleus of MoV. Autoradiography following incubation of tissue sections in the alpha 1 ligand 125IBE 2254 (125I-HEAT) or the nonselective beta ligand [125I]iodocyanopindolol (125ICYP) showed a decrease in alpha 1-AR binding related to the motor neuron degeneration and an increase in beta-AR binding associated with the glial reaction. To determine the extent to which glial proliferation was responsible for the increase in beta-ARs, cytosine arabinofuranoside (AraC) was administered to inhibit mitosis. Following AraC treatment, the total number of glial cells in the ricin-treated MoV was similar to that in normal MoV. Both beta-AR density and GFAP immunoreactivity remain increased, but to a lesser degree than following the ricin treatment alone. AraC also partially prevented the increase of immunolabeled or histochemically visualized microglia and capillary endothelial cells. The coincidence of the increases in beta-AR binding and GFAP in a region devoid of neurons argues that reactive astrocytes and other nonneuronal cells express beta-ARs in vivo. To determine whether the increase in astroglial beta-ARs was due to an up-regulation resulting from transynaptic degeneration of NE terminals, NE content was measured in MoV tissue punches, and NE terminals were visualized by immunocytochemical labeling of dopamine-beta-hydroxylase. NE content and NE terminal density remained unchanged following ricin-induced motor neuron degeneration.