Good on paper: the gap between programme theory and real-world context in Pakistan's Community Midwife programme

OBJECTIVE

To understand why skilled birth attendance-an acknowledged strategy for reducing maternal deaths-has been effective in some settings but is failing in Pakistan and to demonstrate the value of a theory-driven approach to evaluating implementation of maternal healthcare interventions.

DESIGN

Implementation research was conducted using an institutional ethnographic approach.

SETTING AND POPULATION

National programme and local community levels in Pakistan.

METHODS

Observations, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews were conducted with 38 Community Midwives (CMWs), 20 policymakers, 45 healthcare providers and 136 community members. A critical policy document review was conducted. National and local level data were brought together.

MAIN OUTCOMES

Alignment of programme theory with real-world practice.

RESULTS

Data revealed gaps between programme theory, assumptions and reality on the ground. The design of the programme failed to take into account: (1) the incongruity between the role of a midwife and dominant class and gendered norms that devalue such a role; (2) market and consumer behaviour that prevented CMWs from establishing private practices; (3) the complexity of public-private sector cooperation. Uniform deployment policies failed to consider existing provider density and geography.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater attention to programme theory and the 'real-world' setting during design of maternal health strategies is needed to achieve consistent results in different contexts.

The effectiveness of patient referral in Pakistan

In Pakistan, despite an elaborate network of over 5000 basic health units and rural health centres, supported by higher-level facilities, primary health care activities have not brought about expected improvements in health status, especially of rural population groups. A poorly functioning referral system may be partly to blame. System analysis of patient referral was conducted in a district of Punjab province (Attock) for the purpose of identifying major shortcomings, if any, in this domain. Respondents from 225 households were interviewed. Of the households experiencing serious illnesses less than half were taken to a nearest first-level care facility (FLCF). Major reasons included dissatisfaction with quality of care offered, non-availability of physician, and patients being too ill to be taken to the FLCF. The FLCF utilization rate was less than 0.6 patient visits/person/year. The mean number of patients referred per FLCF during the previous 3 months was 6.5 +/- 5.0. Only 15% of patients were referred on the prescribed referral form. None of the higher-level facilities provided feedback to FLCFS: Records of higher-level facilities revealed lack of information on either patient referrals or feedback. There were no surgical or emergency obstetric services available at any of the first-level referral facilities. Seventy-five percent of the patients attending the first-level referral facilities and 44% of the patients attending higher-level facilities had a problem of a primary nature that could well have been managed at the FLCF. As a result of the study findings, eight principal criteria were identified that need to be satisfied before a referral system may be considered functional.

Daily iron supplementation is more effective than twice weekly iron supplementation in pregnant women in Pakistan in a randomized double-blind clinical trial

In the context of limited effectiveness of iron supplementation programs, intermittent iron supplementation is currently under debate as a possible alternative strategy that may enhance the effectiveness of operational programs. This field-based trial assessed the outcome of twice weekly iron supplementation compared to daily in Pakistan. A double-blind, randomized, clinical trial was conducted in Northern Pakistan. Anemic pregnant women (n = 191) were assigned to receive daily (200 mg ferrous sulfate) or twice weekly (2 x 200 mg ferrous sulfate) iron supplementation. Hemoglobin was measured at baseline and at 4-wk intervals for up to 12 wk. Serum ferritin was measured at baseline and 8 or 12 wk. Analysis was by intention to treat. The two groups did not differ in age, parity, sociodemographic characteristics, hemoglobin or serum ferritin concentrations at baseline. Women who received iron daily had a greater rise in hemoglobin compared with women who received iron twice weekly (17.8 +/- 1.8 vs. 3.8 +/- 1.2 g/L, P < 0.001). The serum ferritin concentrations increased by 17.7 +/- 3.9 microgram/L (P < 0.001) in the daily supplemented group and did not change in the twice weekly group. Daily iron supplementation remained superior to twice weekly supplementation after controlling initial hemoglobin Z-scores and duration of treatment. The body mass index (BMI) modified the effect of daily versus twice weekly iron supplementation. For every unit increase in BMI, the difference between the two treatment groups was reduced by 0.0014 (final hemoglobin Z-score; P = 0.027). We recommend continuation of daily iron supplementation as opposed to intermittent iron supplementation in pregnant women in developing countries.