HEALTH CARE IN SLAVONIAN PROVINCE DURING THE 19th CENTURY

Due to its proximity to the Ottoman Empire, Slavonia was constantly exposed to the threat of invasion by numerous infectious and non-infectious diseases. An additional aggravating circumstance was the poor living and hygienic conditions in Slavonia, poverty, droughts, and floods. After the withdrawal of the Ottomans at the end of the 17th century, medical care was provided only by a few barbers and ‘ranarniks’ (i.e., feldshers) who remained in the Slavonian province. Due to the poor medical care, in 1770, the Empress and Queen Maria Theresa issued the General Health Law, which applied to the entire Habsburg Monarchy, including Slavonia. Among other things, it provided for the introduction of formal training for health personnel, ultimately leading to a better quality medical workforce. At the same time, charlatans were increasingly prohibited from working. The shortage of trained physicians, dentists, midwives, pharmacists, and veterinarians was addressed through various measures to promote their education and training. After obtaining their diplomas, these professionals were employed in hospitals, old people’s homes, nursing homes, homes for people with disabilities, and other healthcare institutions where the inhabitants of the Slavonian province received medical care.

The palaeopathology of industry, a perspective from Britain

OBJECTIVES

This article considers the position of palaeopathology of ca. 1750AD onward within the subdiscipline of Industrial Archaeology, and reflects upon the relationship between skeletal palaeopathology and textual sources on disease prevalences.

METHODS

It draws upon the author's experience in engaging with threat-led archaeology. It synthesises key elements of palaeopathological literature, emphasising contributions to the IJPP VSI 'Changes in Health with the Rise of Industry', and also the broader literature regarding Industrial Archaeology.

RESULTS

Industrial Archaeology has seen a recent refocus to include not only a concentration upon technological aspects of industry but also increased emphasis the social context of industrialisation. This movement toward a placement of people as well as machines centre stage has resulted in an environment conducive for paleopathology to make a greater impact upon studies of the period.

CONCLUSIONS

Palaeopathologists need to ensure that their biocultural work is orientated toward research goals of broader relevance if the impact of their work is to be maximised. We cannot directly align prevalence data generated from skeletal and and written sources; roles played by these two sources of evidence will depend, inter alia, upon the problems being investigated.

SIGNIFICANCE

The success of 'Industrial Palaeopathology' will be measured by the extent to which human remains studies move toward centre stage within the broader discipline of Industrial Archaeology.

LIMITATIONS

Multiple perspectives on disciplinary development are possible. Academic traditions, relationships between university- and threat led-sectors, and the opportunities and challenges engendered by working with human remains, differ in different countries.

[How studies on curare contributed to the development of neurophysiological research in Brazil]

Curare is a poison obtained from different species of plants in South America, which was used in arrows by the natives. Its lethal paralyzing potential and mechanism of action began to be explored in the 19th century. In this article, we highlight the research on this poison and the fruitful exchanges between the Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II and the researchers João Baptista de Lacerda, Louis Couty and Alfred Vulpian who contributed to the development of experimental neurophysiology in Brazil. Vulpian found that curare does not affect the nerve itself, but acts between the nerves and the muscle, through a "ligand substance" - this Vulpian's pioneering concept is often wrongly attributed to Claude Bernard. These prestigious scientists contributed to the transnational circulation of knowledge that later yielded in the preparation of curare purified extract used for convulsive therapy and anesthesia.

The Development of Non-affective Psychotic Syndromes in the 19th Century: LeGrand du Saulle and His 1871 Monograph "Le Délire De Persécutions" (Persecutory Delusions)

While the origins of two of Kraepelin's three subtypes of dementia praecox (DP), catatonic and hebephrenic, are well understood, no similar clear narrative exists for his concepts of paranoia and paranoid DP, which require a consideration of both German and French sources. An important milestone in the French literature is the massive 524 page monograph entitled "Le Délire Des Persécutions" published in 1871 by Henri Legrand du Saulle which contained extensive, clinically detailed descriptions of a wide range of cases with prominent, organized persecutory delusions. Many of his cases reported auditory hallucinations (AH), and some bizarre, Schneiderian delusions. The delusional content could evolve to include prominent somatic and/or grandiose themes. Using a symptomatic diagnostic framework, Legrand du Saulle proposed that this syndrome represented an independent "species" of mental illness. He sought to give a voice to the affected individuals, including a chapter devoted entirely to their writings. He described several clinically fascinating features of such patients including how often they moved residence to unsuccessfully flee their persecutors and how delusional beliefs could be communicated to spouses and relatives. Unlike Kraepelin, he was little interested in their course of illness or rates of deterioration, except to note that recoveries occurred in 20% of cases. The clinical richness of this work substantially exceeded that in the contemporaneous German literature. Most of the cases described by du Saulle would fit easily into the two major non-affective delusional syndromes articulated 28 years later in Kraepelin's famous 6th edition of his textbook: paranoia and paranoid DP.

Tracing the Roots of Dementia Praecox: Charles Lasègue and his 1852 Essay "Du Délire De Persécutions" (On Persecutory Delusions)

While the evolution of our modern concepts of mania and melancholia over the 19th century is relatively well-understood, no such clear narrative exists for the nonaffective psychotic syndromes that culminated in Kraepelin's concept of dementia praecox in 1899. These narratives were relatively distinct in Germany and France. An important milestone in the French literature is the 1852 essay by the alienist and polymath Charles Lasègue which contained the first detailed modern description of a persecutory delusional syndrome. Lasègue was a careful clinical observer who emphasized a symptomatic approach to psychiatric nosology and was less concerned with course and outcome. He details the evolution of persecutory delusions from increasing referential observations of real events, to the resulting anxious confusion and then the emergence of explanatory delusional beliefs. Once formed, these beliefs, he notes, are relatively impervious to correction. Lasègue was unusual for his time in emphasizing a "first-person perspective" on psychotic experiences, and quotes from his patients in his case history, of which he presents 15. Of these, 12 had auditory hallucinations and 4 passivity phenomena. While conceptualized differently than mid-19th century pre-Kraepelinian German writing on delusional syndromes, and unique on its focus on persecutory delusions, Lasègue's important essay shared a common view on the key features of a broad nonaffective delusional-hallucinatory syndrome. It was this syndrome that Kraepelin, over multiple drafts in the first 6 editions of his textbook from 1883 to 1899, was to divide into his mature concepts of paranoia and the paranoid subtype of dementia praecox.

Attempted suicide in older people in New South Wales, Australia, 1870-1908

This study examines attempted suicide in older people between 1870 and 1908 in (NSW), Australia. Statistical Registers of NSW indicate persons aged 60+ had disproportionately high rates of apprehension (10.9%) and conviction (13.0%) for attempted suicide. Newspaper reports of 110 suicide attempts in older people indicate that alcohol misuse, poor health, depression, being tired of living, financial problems, relationship difficulties, loss events and insanity were the main issues. Most were treated compassionately with medical care and support, albeit sometimes in a gaol setting. Medical casebooks of persons aged 60+ years with suicide attempts (n = 49) or suicidal ideation (n = 43) admitted to hospitals for the insane indicated that over 75% were psychotic and 50% had melancholia.

FOLK MEDICINE FOR THE TREATMENT OF EYE DISEASES IN DALMATIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY

Folk medicine is a traditional medical practice in the general population, especially in rural areas. Traditional medicine methods used herbal remedies as well as human and animal substances and minerals. The most commonly used drugs in the treatment of eye diseases were drugs of plant origin like chamomile, eyebright and greater celandine, then drugs of human and animal origin like breast milk, saliva, honey, animal bile, and copper sulfate from mineral origin. There is little information in the literature discussing the folk treatment of ocular diseases. The aim of this paper is to show how ocular diseases were treated in folk medicine in Dalmatia during the 19th century. Efforts were also made to explain the reasons for such empirical treatment that was passed from generation to generation. At the end of the 19th, and especially at the beginning of the 20th century, modern and scientific ophthalmology developed in Dalmatia, but also throughout Croatia, first in large cities. So gradually, folk medicine in the treatment of eye diseases became more and more forgotten.

Emil Kraepelin as a historian of psychiatry - one hundred years on

This article reviews Emil Kraepelin's address 'Hundert Jahre Psychiatrie', at the opening of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Psychiatrie in 1917, and published as an essay in 1918. Kraepelin's publication represents a part of his late work: his commitment as a historian of psychiatry. He composed a classic narrative of psychiatric progress, which includes an outlook on desirable future developments in therapy and prevention. The present article considers the essay's socio-historical context as well as its structure and content. The focus lies on its time of origin around the end of World War I, its sources in relation to the state of the art of historiography at that time and the history of its reception, including the English-language edition of 1962.

Karl Grassmann's 1896 paper "critical overview of contemporary theories of the heredity of the psychoses"

Four years before the rediscovery of Mendel's work in 1900, Karl Grassmann published a detailed, scholarly review of the heredity of psychosis which we here review. A full translation is in the appendix. We emphasize seven major conclusions from this review. First, while recognizing the key importance of heredity in the etiology of psychosis. Grassmann was critical of many of the highly speculative extant theories. Second, he reviewed most of the major methodologic concerns in the literature from what kinds of heredity to investigate to the problems with the global use of insanity as a diagnostic category. Third, he discussed in detail genetic theories associated with Degeneration theory, maintaining considerable skepticism. Fourth, he recognized nongenetic contribution to familial transmission. Fifth, he reviewed evidence for both homogeneous and heterogeneous transmission of forms of mental illness in families, suggesting that both were important. Sixth, while he noted that mania, melancholia, and cyclothymia commonly replaced each other in families, Verrücktheit (delusional psychoses) rarely co-segregated in families with these mood disorders. Seventh, Grassmann, like other 19th century writers, saw relatives to be of value only in assessing the level of hereditary predisposition in patients and had limited appreciation of the need for controlled studies.

A German physicist's travels in Great Britain Julius Plücker's visits from 1853 to 1866

Today, we take international collaborations as a necessity, but 150 years ago, when travel was not so convenient, it involved an enduring and time-consuming challenge. This paper presents letters and reports written by German physicist Julius Plücker to his wife, Antonie née Altstädten describing his travels to Great Britain and France between 1853 and 1866. These letters provide a view into how international collaboration and communication were developed and maintained as well as how friendships were built within the scientific community during the early industrial age, prior to telegraph, telephone, email, and internet.

Krafft-Ebing's 1874 monograph "Melancholia: A Clinical Study"

BACKGROUND

In 1874, the German neuropsychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing (RKE) published one of the most influential monographs on melancholia in the latter half of the 19th century entitled "Melancholia: A Clinical Study." This monograph has not been translated into English nor extensively discussed in the modern Anglophonic literature.

RESULTS

The monograph has three chapters describing, respectively, Melancholia without Delusions, Melancholia with precordial anxiety and Psychotic Melancholia. The last chapter includes a discussion of retarded and agitated forms of melancholia. The text combines detailed vivid clinical descriptions with etiologic theories involving mental, brain and autonomic processes. RKE supports the psychalgic theory of melancholia in which, analogous to Tic Douloureux causing terrible pain to a normal touch, brain ganglia became hypersensitive and create a sustained mental pain in response to normal intrapsychic or environmental stimuli. RKE was especially interested in the development of delusions in melancholia, for which he proposed several distinct pathways. His clinical description of melancholia, including 8 of 9 DSM-5 A criteria for major depression, is quite modern.

CONCLUSIONS

This essay, accompanied by an on-line complete English translation of RKE's essay, provides the opportunity for Anglophonic clinicians, students, and scholars to access this historically important essay on Melancholia. The psychophysiological framework of psychalgia adopted by RKE could explained how normal social and introspective experiences would, in melancholic patients, be interpreted in a distorted manner, reinforcing themes of inadequacy, failure, and worthlessness, thereby producing a sustained mood state of intense mental pain of melancholia or psychalgia.

Language as a Specimen

Language was never studied by linguists (or philologists) alone. The greater part of the languages of the world was first known in the West through the reports of missionaries, explorers, and colonial administrators, and what they documented reflected their specific interests. Missionaries wrote catechisms, primers, dictionaries, and Bible translations (especially Lord's Prayers); for explorers and administrators, language was one aspect among many to cover in their accounts of faraway regions. Peoples were identified by their language; toponyms served for geographic description; names of plants and animals were gathered together with specimens and images of plants and animals. In this context, linguistic materials were equally described as "specimens." This article investigates the various ways in which language material was used and conceived of as a specimen, and the global trajectories of these "specimens." Especially the role of naturalist explorers deserves closer attention in this regard. What they did, throughout the late 18^th and 19^th century, was gathering language material as one kind of specimen among others, Forster in the Pacific, Humboldt, Martius, and d'Orbigny in South America, and Peters in Mozambique. Two large-scale expeditions from the mid-19^th century stand out as examples: the U.S. Exploring Expedition (1838-1842), whose collections later filled the Smithsonian Institution, and the Austrian-Hungarian Novara expedition (1857-1859).

[DEVELOPMENT OF ZAGREB HEALTH CARE IN THE LAST DECADES OF 19th CENTURY]

The article describes health and health care development in Zagreb in the 19th century, with special attention to the last period of the century, using articles from Liječnički vjesnik for analysis. The development of the hospital and public health system is being considered, as well as the modernisation of other areas - pharmacy and dentistry. In addition, the paper presents basic health enlightenment thoughts as well as their authors. In the end, a brief analysis of treatment success is made on several separate examples.

Thomas Shapter (1809-1902) of Exeter: Nineteenth century epidemiologist, physician, psychiatrist and author

Thomas Shapter spent almost all his working life in Exeter, Devon. He lived to be 93 years old. He is remembered primarily for his book describing the 1832 epidemic of cholera in Exeter in which 402 people died.

The case of Dr Pownall - mad doctor, sane patient and insane murderer

Dr Pownall was a surgeon, asylum proprietor and one-time mayor of Calne who had bouts of insanity. He had two serious bouts of violence when insane, and later murdered a servant, Louisa Cook, after his discharge from Northwoods Asylum as recovered. He was tried for murder and ended up in Broadmoor, where he died in 1882. There are extensive contemporary public accounts of the case, but detailed examination of the roles of the local chief magistrate, Purnell Barnsby Purnell, and Pownall's brother-in-law and asylum doctor, Dr Ogilvie, reveals severe tensions that adversely influenced events. Everyone defended themselves, and few lessons were learned about cooperation.

The 'insanity' of Lady Durham

This essay draws on evidence in a late nineteenth-century court case and surviving medical notes to provide a case study of a hitherto unidentified case of Autism Spectrum Disorder. The case is particularly interesting in that it not only appears to be the first identification of historical ASD in a female, but also because the patient subsequently developed symptoms of psychosis suggestive of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. The unusual survival of detailed medical notes also throws light on the ways in which a difficult patient was treated by supposedly enlightened pioneers of psychiatry.

A Life Less than Ordinary: The Schooner Ocean (1821-1865)

The East Winner Bank Shipwreck takes its name from the southern sandbank on Hayling Island near Portsmouth, UK. Examination of the wreck indicates a 19th-century carvel-built vessel. The sandbank is an active environment, meaning the wreck is rarely exposed to its full extent. Discussed here is work completed on the site before and during the social-distancing restrictions imposed by COVID-19. Documentary sources and previous detailed surveys suggest a possible identification for the wreck. The site appears to be an example of an everyday 19th-century coastal trading vessel, rarely explored archaeologically in the UK, with potential to contribute to discussions of the maritime technologies and maritime cultural landscape of regular folk. The investigation represents an excellent example of combining historical and archaeological data sets to further the interpretation of both sources, revealing details about the ship and its lasting impact on this stretch of coastline.

PROF. DR CARL FERDINAND RITTER VON ARLT (1812-1887): HIS LIFE AND WORK DURING HIS OPHTHALMOLOGICAL CAREER IN PRAGUE

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the life and work in Prague of the famous ophthalmologist Carl Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt (1812‒1887). The paper presents data on his stay in Prague while studying Medicine and working as a private physician and ophthalmologist. Professor von Arlt was Head of the Chair of Ophthalmology at Charles University. He was Director of the Eye Clinic at Prague General Hospital from 1849 to 1856. A detailed description is given of his residences and their appearance today. Very little has been written about this aspect, so the paper will be a supplement to his impressive biography. A brief, chronological, systematic and concise biography is also provided, including details of his family and his contributions to Ophthalmology. During his 25-year stay in Prague (1831-1856), he commuted between the city centre and the General Hospital where he worked. He changed the location of his residence five times. It is important to note and not to forget where one of the greatest ophthalmologists of the 19th century worked and resided in Prague.

[MEDICINE IN OSIJEK DURING THE REIGN OF FRANZ JOSEPH I – THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE HUTTLER-KOLHOFFER-MONSPERGER FOUNDATION HOSPITAL]

The Austrian emperor and the Croat-Hungarian king Franz Joseph I (1830/1848-1916) was the longest-serving ruler of the Habsburg dynasty. Among his properties was Osijek, which since 1809 enjoyed the status of a free royal city. In the period under review, it was the seat of the Virovitica County and the capital of the Kingdom of Slavonia until its incorporation into the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia after the Croat-Hungarian settlement of 1868. Because of this, Osijek was not only a political, economic and cultural centre but also a health care centre. At the beginning of the reign of Franz Joseph I, two hospitals were operating in it: a military one in the baroque military garrison Tvrđa and a civilian one in New Town. The most significant role in the further development of the Osijek and Slavonian health care was played by the trust established in 1806 from the legacies of innkeeper Johann Kolhoffer, tanner Josef Huttler and Jesuit Cristian Monsperger. Although originally intended for the establishment of an orphanage, due to a number of unfavourable political circumstances, the trust, until then with multiple interests attributed to the principal, came under the administration of the city of Osijek only in 1867. Along with the new orphanage opened in 1874, a new hospital was completed as well in 1868, also with the money from the trust. Huttler-Kohlhoffer-Monsperger Foundation Hospital was the largest and most modern hospital in the Triune Kingdom, and despite later constructions of various hospital wards, its building has remained the most representative building within the Clinical-Hospital Centre Osijek.

Entre l'arbre et l'écorce : l'évolution de la profession de pharmacien au Québec aux XIXe-XXe siècles

In Quebec's historiography, the history of pharmacies and pharmacists straddles the history of medicine, doctors and health, on the one side, and the history of small business and consumerism, on the other. Too much of a hybrid to fit neatly in either of those fields of study, it has largely flown under the historians' radar. This duality is nonetheless fascinating. Not only is it at the very heart of pharmacies' trajectory and evolution in Quebec, but it explicitly highlights the fact that health, medication, and consumerism have historically close ties. Having given the background to an important investigation held in 1899, the paper illustrates the tension between commerce and profession from the mid-19th century to the economic and identity crisis facing pharmacists in the Sixties and Seventies.

Demetrius Zambaco Pasha (1832-1913): The first leprologist of the Orient

Démétrius Zambaco Pasha (1832-1913) was an internationally renowned Ottoman-born French dermatologist of Greek origin who is considered the first leprologist of the Orient. A graduate from the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, he practised there until he returned to Istanbul in 1872 and later served as a private physician to the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II (1842-1918), then Abbas Hilmi Pasha (1874-1944), the last Khedive of Egypt. Dr Zambaco produced numerous publications in a variety of medical subjects including leprosy, syphilis, morphinomania, eunuchs, and medical history. Leprosy, however, was his main field of scientific interest, with nearly 40 studies published and many other communications presented at international medical congresses. Due to his outstanding scientific contributions, Dr Zambaco garnered many accolades including the Cholera Medal of Honour, the Montyon Prize, and Légion d'Honneur from France as well as the honorary title of Pasha, a higher rank in the political and military system, from the Ottoman Empire.

Unearthing a provincial medical school and its students - A history of the 1834 'School of Practical Medicine and Surgery' at the Sussex County Hospital, Brighton, England

The 19th century was a period of rapid change in English medical education. Little is known about the important contribution of smaller, hospital-based, provincial medical schools which sprang up to provide important practical training opportunities for students, typically as a foundation for further training and examination in London. One such example is the 1834 Brighton 'School of Practical Medicine and Surgery', which was based at the Sussex County Hospital and recognised by the Royal College of Surgeons and Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Unlike many other 19th century medical schools, the history of the Brighton school is largely undocumented. Although it remained dependent upon London through the 'College and Hall' examination system, this article shows that the school's pragmatic and adaptive educational approach allowed it to play an important role in educating future doctors in Brighton from 1834 into at least the early 20th century.

Freud, Griesinger and Foville: the influence of the nineteenth-century psychiatric tradition in the Freudian concept of delusion as an 'attempt at recovery'

This article aims to situate the Freudian concept of delusion in psychosis as an 'attempt at recovery', within the context of the classical psychiatric theories prevalent in the nineteenth century. Freud's theoretical thinking on the psychopathology of psychosis presents elements of continuity with, and divergence from, the psychiatric theories of his time. We will thus demonstrate the singularity of Freud's own theory. We will discuss the possible influence that the theory proposed by Griesinger, with its description of a temporal evolution in the psychotic process, may have had on Freud's thinking, and consider the theory of 'deductive logic' prevalent in nineteenth-century French psychiatry. Finally, we will discuss the vehement critique Freud made of both these theories.

Prosper Lucas and his 1850 "Philosophical and Physiological Treatise on Natural Heredity"

Prosper Lucas (1808-1885) is a unique figure in the history of psychiatric genetics. A physician-alienist, he authored one of the most important books on human genetics in the mid-19th century cited frequently by Darwin: the 1,500 page treatise-Philosophical and Physiological Treatise on Natural Heredity (1847-1850). This book contained a novel theory of the nature of inheritance and a detailed review of the heredity of a range of human traits and disorders, including various forms of insanity. Lucas postulated four forms of heredity (direct, crossed, indirect, and atavistic), supported the importance of hereditary factors in insanity, accepted the inheritance of acquired characteristics, considered it important to examine both ancestors and collateral relatives, and recognized that heredity could influence both primary insanity and insanity secondary to other medical conditions. He reviewed the then available literature on most major forms of insanity including separate sections on hallucinations and suicidal monomania. The literature consisted of case reports of unusual families with high concentrations of illness. Lucas advocated for the homogeneity of transmission of forms of illness in families but recognized that-just as the form of illness could evolve within individuals over time-it could change forms when transmitted between relatives.

Mary Livermore and My Story of the War: A nurse's narrative journey

Mary Livermore's My Story of the War is a valuable piece of travel writing written from the point of view of a nurse who documented her unexpected personal and professional journey to administer the Sanitary Commission of the United States Union Army and provide nursing care during the American Civil War. Although Livermore's pre-war background had not been solely limited to the domestic sphere, her wartime experience involved a public negotiation between the traditional domestic realm assigned to women and new nursing professional functions that emerged during the war. In a context in which the general access of women to public writing was rather limited and in which nursing was not a formally regulated professional activity, Livermore's triumphal narrative reflects the increasing connection between progressively professional nursing functions that emerged in the context of war and a new women's rights leadership forged during her autobiographical journey.

The paper technology of confinement: evolving criteria in admission forms (1850-73)

This paper investigates the role of admission forms in the regulation of asylum confinement in the second half of the nineteenth century. Taking the Toronto Lunatic Asylum as a case study it traces the evolution of the forms' content and structure during the first decades of this institution. Admission forms provide important material for understanding the medico-legal assessment of lunacy in a certain jurisdiction. First, they show how the description of insanity depended on a plurality of actors. Second, doctors were not necessarily required to indicate symptoms of derangement. Third, patients' relatives played a fundamental role in providing clinical information. From an historiographical perspective, this paper invites scholars to consider the function of standardized documents in shaping the written identity of patients.

Apuntes sobre la institucionalización de la Medicina en Michoacán, siglo XIX

El objetivo del estudio fue mostrar rasgos identitarios del proceso de institucionalización de la Medicina en el siglo XIX en Michoacán. Se señalan aspectos relevantes de la creación y la evolución de las instituciones relacionadas con el cuidado de la salud de los michoacanos durante el siglo XIX a partir de la revisión de material hemerográfico y textos referentes a la práctica de la Medicina en esa centuria, en el Estado de Michoacán.

The objective of the study was to show identity traits of the process of institutionalization of Medicine in the 19th century in Michoacán. Relevant aspects of the creation and evolution of the institutions related to the health care of Michoacans during the 19th century are pointed out from the review of hemerographic material and texts referring to the practice of medicine in that century, in the State from Michoacan.

Giovanni Rajberti (1805-1861): An uncompromising physician and poet

The aim of this paper is to describe the figure of the Italian uncompromising physician and poet Giovanni Rajberti (1805-1861), who was a strenuous opponent of non-scientific medical practices in Italy, including Animal Magnetism, Homeopathy and Hydropathy. In particular, he demonstrated the inconsistency of mesmerist practices in an exemplary yet less-known episode that involved the famous French writer Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850). Although his ideas hindered his career, Rajberti continued to criticize alternative practices, sustaining the value of true medicine and science against charlatans.

'The voice of the stomach': the mind, hypochondriasis and theories of dyspepsia in the nineteenth century

Physicians and surgeons during the nineteenth century were eager to explore the causes of stomach and intestinal illnesses. Theories abounded that there was a sympathy between the mind and the body, especially in the case of the dyspepsia. The body was thought to have physical symptoms from the reactions of the mind, especially in the case of hypochondriasis. Digestive problems had a mental component, but mental anguish could also result from physical problems. Dissertations from aspiring as well as established physicians probed the mental causes of irritable bowel diseases and other diseases in the medical literature. Healing was thought to come from contextualizing the link between the problems of the mind and the resulting physical problems of the body.

Sexual abuse by superintending staff in the nineteenth-century lunatic asylum: medical practice, complaint and risk

The nineteenth century witnessed a great shift in how insanity was regarded and treated. Well documented is the emergence of psychiatry as a medical specialization and the role of lunatic asylums in the West. Unclear are the relationships between the heads of institutions and the individuals treated within them. This article uses two cases at either end of the nineteenth century to demonstrate sexual misdemeanours in sites of mental health care, and particularly how they were dealt with, both legally and in the press. They illustrate issues around cultures of complaint and the consequences of these for medical careers. Far from being representative, they highlight the need for further research into the doctor-patient relationship within asylums, and what happened when the boundaries were blurred.

The role of neurasthenia in the formation of the physiotherapy profession

Background: Neurasthenia was one of the most commonly diagnosed disorders in the later years of the 19^th century. Its most widely used treatment, known as the Rest Cure, relied heavily on physical therapies, but little is known about the practitioners who administered the treatment. In this paper, I argue that the nurse-masseuses who delivered the massage and electricity so vital to the success of the Rest Cure, used the opportunity to develop approaches to treatment that would form the backbone of the physiotherapy profession in England after 1894. Methods: Extensive primary and secondary texts were drawn from a wide range of sources and critically reviewed. Findings: This study argues that the management of neurasthenic cases in the 1880s and 90s created the conditions necessary for the development of the profession's relationship with medicine and the establishment of new practice roles for women, and that these would play an important role in shaping the physiotherapy profession in Britain after 1894. Read through the critical sociological writings of Magali Sarfatti Larson and Anne Witz, I argue that the work of the nurse-masseuses can be seen as a complex gendered negotiation between the need to be deferential to the dominant male medical profession; distinct from emerging notions of the angelic, motherly nurse; obedient, technically competent and safe. The creation of a space in the clinic room for a third practitioner who could deliver a different form of care to the doctor or the nurse, established an approach to practice that physiotherapists would later adopt almost without amendment. Discussion: I argue that this approach owes much to the work done by nurse-massueses who established and tested its principles in treating cases of neurasthenia.

The name to remember: Flexibility and contextuality of preliterate folk plant categorization from the 1830s, in Pernau, Livonia, historical region on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Research on the folk categorization of nature in preliterate societies in Europe is complicated due to the fragmentation of the information available and is rarely undertaken. Yet the data is valuable and may provide, in certain circumstances, important insights, if not into novel medicines, then into the historical logic of selection and memorisation of plants useful from a medicinal perspective.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

We aim to understand the ethnobotany of a preliterate society by analysing the emic (derived from people) perspective on nature-related culture of one of Europe's smaller nations, whose written language and culture was shaped in the 18th-19th centuries by other, larger nations of Europe, and thus from the etic (academic) perspective. We attempt to identify how folk categorization is reflected in the relationships between plant names and uses and to map the structure of those relationships.

DATA AND METHODS

We base our analysis on one of the oldest ethnobotanical manuscripts and herbaria of the Baltic governorates, compiled in 1831 by an amateur botanist, Baltic German Pastor Johann Heinrich Rosenplänter (1782-1846), which was derived from conversations with his parishioners from the tiny Pärnu parish. The historical dataset was critically analysed from an ethnobotanical perspective in light of recent identifications of the herbarium specimens.

RESULTS

Although the Rosenplänter collection is fragmentary, the logic of plant categorization by non-literate peasants at that time is clearly seen in the data. Plants preserved in the herbarium were predominantly used for ethno-medicinal, food or ethno-veterinary purposes, such as treating chronic skin and joint diseases as well as severe acute diseases in humans and animals. Among 129 folk taxa analysed, more than one third had apparent purpose-related plant names providing clear links to their use, whereas a few multifunctional plants had several names reflecting diverse uses. For example, Hypericum spp., which was used in three different ways, had three semantically distinct names. However, among the plants that Rosenplänter collected, there were also some that were simply named and described by people but lacked any usability data (e.g., Trollius europaeus), meaning that use as such was not the primary criterion for recognising a plant. The web-like structure of preliterate thinking in plant-related knowledge reveals a deep relationship with the environment and the interpretation of new elements through familiar natural objects.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that historical ethnobotanical data, if thoughtfully analysed, can be used not only for comparative purposes, but also for understanding the logic of preliterate thinking. We encourage future in-depth studies of historical ethnobotanical data in Europe in order to understand the relationship between nature and culture of native European populations.

[Veterinary pathological collections: yesterday - today - tomorrow]

INTRODUCTION

History, relevance and development of veterinary pathological collections are presented by analyzing and comparing the collections from Berlin, Munich, Vienna and Zurich of the 19th and 20th century. The indices of the collections are analyzed according to the frequency of animal species, body parts, organs and disease processes or etiologies respectively. Collection differences allow to draw conclusions on the founder of the collection and historical significance. Each collection was part of a university and thus involved in teaching and research. This often ensured the continuous existence of the collections. Nevertheless, changing teaching methods made pathological collections increasingly redundant. A comparison with other university collections, such as those of the University of Zurich, show new application aspects for existing collections and required measurement are discussed.

Healthcare and Physical Education of Children and Youth in Prague 1869-1914

The article focuses on the healthcare and physical education of children and youth in Prague, the capital city of Czech lands, in the period after the Austro-Hungarian compromise of 1867. The legislative framework for children's physical development and healthcare consisted of laws passed by the Imperial Council which were in force throughout the entire region of Cisleithania. Its execution and implementation, however, were the responsibility of the Czech territorial assembly and Prague municipality. The study analyses the environment in which children grew up, the quality of their diet, and their medical care, particularly the activities of school doctors. Further, the text concentrates on the organization and the quality of school physical education. Prague serves as an example of an industrial centre of the Cisleithanian region whose industrial development caused rapid urbanization which limited the possibilities of physical development of children and youth. Until the end of the 19th century, the only possibility of organized exercises was school physical education, and its quality was greatly influenced by the modest spatial conditions of schools. Even at the better-equipped grammar schools, physical education was an optional subject until 1909 and was not taught at most of them at all. As part of the modernization of the empire, the Cisleithanian government supported physical education, also for military reasons. The same was done by the Prague municipality, where care for the physical development and health of children and youth did not become the subject of political disputes.

American Civil War medical practice, the post-bellum opium crisis and modern comparisons

The American Civil War resulted in massive numbers of injured and ill soldiers. Throughout the conflict, medical doctors relied on opium to treat these conditions, giving rise to claims that the injudicious use of the narcotic caused America's post-bellum opium crisis. Similar claims of medical misuse of opioids are now made as America confronts the modern narcotic crisis. A more nuanced thesis based on a broader base of Civil War era research suggests a more complex set of interacting factors that collectively contributed to America's post-war opium crisis.

A democratic program for healing: The Raspail domestic medicine method in 1840s France

Raspail's domestic medicine method, popularized in 1840s France, has similarities with the practices of nineteenth century non-academic healers. His mass marketing of camphor as a universal treatment echoes the practices of "charlatans" and their circles. But Raspail is also very original in this history of popular care. As a scientist, a popularizer of encyclopedic knowledge and a political activist, he managed to blur traditional distinctions between science and politics and between popular and learned medicine. Raspail was a constant thorn in the side of academic institutions and professional organizations, which were struggling to gain legitimacy. His work took a political turn when he combined, within a single project, his approach to treatment and his call for democratizing medical care. Raspail's method challenged institutional norms by acknowledging the importance of the patient's contribution to the healing process, and recognizing the necessity of thwarting the occasionally deleterious effects of monopolistic medicalization.

The pioneer ophthalmologist Johann Friedrich Horner (1831-1886) and the clinical anatomy of the homonymous syndrome

Johann Friedrich Horner is remembered in ophthalmology due to his brief report in the German scientific journal 'Klinische Monatsblatter fur Augenheilkunde', in which emphasized the clinical value of a cluster of external signs of damage to the cervical sympathetic nerve. Although J .F .Horner was not the first to describe such a syndrome, he was credited with the nomination. For the French, Francois Pourfour du Petit was the pioneer in that case. Born in Zurich, travelled Europe to be further educated, becoming later on Professor and Director of the University Clinic of Ophthalmology in his native city. In conclusion, J .F .Horner's adamantine character, hard work, assiduous teaching and skills in eye surgery made him one of the main contributors for the evolution of ophthalmology in the nineteenth century Central Europe.

Tracing the Roots of Dementia Praecox: The Emergence of Verrücktheit as a Primary Delusional-Hallucinatory Psychosis in German Psychiatry From 1860 to 1880

While the roots of mania and melancholia can be traced to the 18th century and earlier, we have no such long historical narrative for dementia praecox (DP). I, here, provide part of that history, beginning with Kraepelin's chapter on Verrücktheit for his 1883 first edition textbook, which, over the ensuing 5 editions, evolved into Kraepelin's mature concepts of paranoia and paranoid DP. That chapter had 5 references published from 1865 to 1879 when delusional-hallucinatory syndromes in Germany were largely understood as secondary syndromes arising from prior episodes of melancholia and mania in the course of a unitary psychosis. Each paper challenged that view supporting a primary Verrücktheit as a disorder that should exist alongside mania and melancholia. The later authors utilized faculty psychology, noting that primary Verrücktheit resulted from a fundamental disorder of thought or cognition. In particular, they argued that, while delusions in mania and melancholia were secondary, arising from primary mood changes, in Verrücktheit, delusions were primary with observed changes in mood resulting from, and not causing, the delusions. In addition to faculty psychology, these nosologic changes were based on the common-sense concept of understandability that permitted clinicians to distinguish individuals in which delusions emerged from mood changes and mood changes from delusions. The rise of primary Verrücktheit in German psychiatry in the 1860-1870s created a nosologic space for primary psychotic illness. From 1883 to 1899, Kraepelin moved into this space filling it with his mature diagnoses of paranoia and paranoid DP, our modern-day paranoid schizophrenia.

Alexander Frese and the establishment of psychiatry in the Russian Empire

Previous historiography has already paid particular attention to well-known 'metropolitan' biographies of I. Balinsky, V. Bekhterev and others, as well as their role in the establishment of a scientific approach in the treatment of mental illnesses in the Russian Empire. Little attention has been paid to 'provincial' physicians and the importance of their scientific activity in bridging the gap between the Russian and European institutions of psychiatry. The primary aim of this article is to show how Alexander Frese's 'mobile' and 'imperial' career influenced the emergence of the transnational origins of Russian psychiatry. It describes his travels to foreign psychiatric hospitals, and his subsequent critical assessment of them. I argue that his ideas, which had been formulated during these trips, determined the design of emerging psychiatric institutions (district hospitals) in the Russian Empire.

Lasting the distance: The survival of alien birds shipped to New Zealand in the 19th century

Invasive alien species are a major threat to biodiversity and human activities, providing a strong incentive to understand the processes by which alien invasion occurs. While it is important to understand the determinants of success at each of several invasion stages-transport, introduction, establishment, and spread-few studies have explored the first of these stages. Here, we quantify and analyze variation in the success of individual animals in surviving the transport stage, based on shipping records of European passerines destined for New Zealand. We mined the original documents of Acclimatisation Societies, established in New Zealand for the purpose of introducing supposedly beneficial alien species, in combination with recently digitized newspaper archives, to produce a unique dataset of 122 ships that carried passerines from Europe to New Zealand between 1850 and 1885. For 37 of these shipments, data on the survival of individual species were available. Using generalized linear mixed models, we explored how survival was related to characteristics of the shipments and the species. We show that species differed greatly in their survival, but none of the tested traits accounted for these differences. Yet, survival increased over time, which mirrors the switch from early haphazard shipments to larger organized shipments. Our results imply that it was the quality of care received by the birds that most affected success at this stage of the invasion process.

Strange Cases: Jekyll & Hyde Narratives as Rhetorical Strategy in Sir Alexander Morison's Physiognomy of Mental Diseases

Sir Alexander Morison's Physiognomy of Mental Diseases (1838) was created as a didactic tool for physicians, depicting lunatics in both the active and dormant states of disease. Through the act of juxtaposition, Morison constituted his subjects as their own Jekylls and Hydes, capable of radical transformation. In doing so, he marshaled artistic and clinical, visual and textual approaches in order to pose a particular argument about madness as a temporally manifested, visually distinguishable state defined by its contrast with reason. This argument served a crucial function in legitimizing the emergent discipline of psychiatry by applying biomedical methodologies to the observation and classification of distinctly physical symptoms. Robert Louis Stevenson's "quintessentially Victorian parable" serves as a metaphor for the way 19th-century alienists conceptualized insanity, while the theme of duality at the core of Stevenson's story serves as a framework for conceptualizing both psychiatry and the subjects it generates. It was (and is) a discipline formulated around narrative as the primary organizing structure for its particular set of paradoxes, and specifically, narratives of the self as a fluid, dynamic, and contradictory entity.

'As syllable from sound': the sonic dimensions of confinement at the State Hospital for the Insane at Worcester, Massachusetts

As the first state hospital in the USA, the Worcester State Hospital for the Insane at Worcester, Massachusetts (est. 1833), set a precedent for asylum design and administration that would be replicated across the country. Because the senses were believed to provide a direct conduit into a person's mental state, the intended therapeutic force of the Worcester State Hospital resided in its particular command over sensory experience. In this paper, I examine how aurality was used as an instrument in the moral architecture of the asylum; how the sonic design of the asylum collided with the day-to-day logistics of institutional management; and the way that patients experienced and engaged with the resultant patterns of sound and silence.

A woman's grace: gender, imperialism and religion in Emily Keene's philanthropic activities in Morocco, 1873-1941

Emily Keene (London 1849 - Tangier 1941) became a relevant figure in pre-colonial Moroccan history due to her involvement in British policy and to her philanthropic-medical initiatives during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Such prominence was closely linked with her marriage to the sheriff of Wazzan, a powerful spiritual and political figure. 'Grace', in a triple romantic, political and religious sense, was a defining feature of Keene's marriage and widowhood and explained that, despite her continuing adscription to Christian religion, British imperialism and Western science, she deployed a weakly hegemonic stand towards her country of adoption. This attitude distanced her from the 'civilizing mission' policy that set off in the mid-1880s and from the active proselytising and scientific supremacism of the British missionaries during the same period. After her husband's death in 1892, she showed a strong commitment towards (Western-style) Moroccan social and political emancipation, which she tried to promote in close association with a small circle of women friends and Quakers based in Tangiers. Emily Keene's is thus an excellent case study for exploring the interplay between gender, imperialism and religion in pre-colonial Morocco and also the connection between private life and public activity in 19th century women humanitarians.

[Karol Kaczkowski (1787-1867) General of Staff of the Polish Army, epidemiologist, innovator, teacher]

The name of Karol Kaczkowski, one of the pioneers of Polish epidemiology of the 19th century, has been somewhat forgotten. Hence, it is worth getting acquainted with his actions that he made contributing to the effective inhibition of the spread of the cholera epidemic that hit Polish territory in the 1830s. KAROL KACZKOWSKI (1797-1867) General of Staff of the Polish Army, doctor, professor, He was born in Warsaw on 2 February 1797. In 1805 his parents moved to Krzemieniec. In 1815, he began medical studies at the University of Vilnius. He was friends with philomaths: Adam Mickiewicz and Tomasz Zan. In 1821 he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine. In the years 1824-1828 he traveled around Europe. In 1829, he was nominated the Head of the Therapeutic Clinic at the University of Warsaw. After the outbreak of the November Uprising on November 29, 1830, he joined the artillery and in 1831 was appointed chief physician of the Polish Army. He organized the command of the military health service, hospitals and field hospitals. After the battle of Grochów, he organized battalion dressing points and a cordon of doctors who provided quick help to the wounded. On February 5, 1831, Karol Kaczkowski was appointed the Chief Physician of the Polish Army. When the first cholera patients, brought in by the Russian army, arrived in Warsaw in the spring of 1831, he prepared instructions on how to detect and treat cholera. He created cholera hospitals in Mienia and Warsaw, and sanitary supervision in military units. For this he was awarded the Wirtuti Militari Gold Cross. After the fall of the uprising, he left Poland with a group of 2,000. injured. He got to Prussia, and then to Lviv. In 1854 he settled in Żytomierz. He suffered harassment from the tsarist authorities. In 1863, during the January Uprising, he was sent to the Voronezh Governorate. In 1867, he obtained a permit to travel to Kherson, where he died on September 14, 1867.

'Am I mad?': the Windham case and Victorian resistance to psychiatry

This article revisits the notorious trial of William Windham, a wealthy young man accused of lunacy. The trial in 1861-2 saw the country's foremost experts on psychological medicine very publicly debate the concepts, symptoms and diagnosis of insanity. I begin by surveying the trial and the testimonies of medical experts. Their disparate assessments of Windham evoked heated reactions in the press and Parliament; these reactions are the focus of the second section. I then proceed to examine criticism of psychiatry in the newspapers more generally in the 1860s, outlining the political resistance to psychiatry and the responses of some leading psychiatrists. In conclusion, I consider what this says about the politics of medicalization at the time.

[The traditional Chinese Medicine-The points of view from a Russian doctor in the mid-nineteenth century]

Doctor of Medicine Tatarinov(Татаринов) came to China, as a member of the Russian Orthodox Mission(also known as the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission). He wrote a report on Chinese medicine in 1855. In its preface, he recorded in detail and commented the books of medicine in China, the status of Chinese physicians, and their services of diagnosis and therapy. The records of the clinics in Beijing, its diagnostic fee and service way of the practitioners were very rare in other literatures. Its comments on traditional Chinese medicine reflected western doctors' ideas at that time. His view came from unique angle, and had high value on the study of Chinese medicine history.

Places where Famous Ophthalmologist Albrecht Von Graefe Lived and Worked in Berlin

Many things are said and written about famous ophthalmologist Albrecht von Graefe. This work gives detailed description of the places where he lived and practiced ophthalmology in Berlin, because very little was written about it and never in one paper. Von Graefe was born in 1828 in villa Finkenherd in the north-west part of Tiergarten in Berlin. He lived in Behrenstrasse, one of the fashionable streets in Berlin, where he began his ophthalmological practice in 1850. Later, in 1852 he founded a famous private eye clinic in Karlstrasse 46 where he treated numerous eye patients and educated many prominent ophthalmologists and surgeons. Several times he had changed his residence addresses. Among other places, he also stayed in Unter den Linden Avenue and Bellevuestrasse near Potsdamer Platz. In 1868 he became the head of the eye clinic in the Charité Hospital. Since then he lived in a spacious house on Viktoriastrasse until his death in 1870. Although Albrecht von Graefe lived only 42 years, he travelled a lot, but most of his life he spent in the city of Berlin. Graefe made many contributions to ophthalmology being considered the "father of glaucoma" and the nestor of modern ophthalmology.

200th Anniversary of the Beginning of Clinical Application of the Laennec's Stethoscope in 1819

Although stethoscope was invented by French physician René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec (1781-1826) in 1816, its wider clinical application started only after the publication of his book entitled De l'Auscultation Médiate ou Traité, du Diagnostic des Maladies des Poumons et du Coeur in 1819. Its invention coincided with the development of the 'hospital medicine' in the post-revolutionary Paris during the first quarter of the 19th century. It has enabled then contemporary physicians to explain the correlation between the patient symptoms and the clinical findings and thus has helped the shift from the humoral pathology towards the solitary pathology.