Two is not necessarily better than one: A double lens in a pre-metamorphic adult axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum)

An 8-year-old female pre-metamorphic axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) was examined for a suspected anterior lens luxation. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy revealed two lens-like structures in the anterior chamber of the right eye (OD), each with cataractous change. Ultrasound biomicroscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) were performed without sedation, and revealed small lenticular structures each with distinct nuclei and cortices. Although a distinct connection of the two lenticular structures could not be definitively ruled out, the structures appeared separate. Each of the lenticular structures was closely associated with its respective iris leaflet. This report demonstrates application of advanced imaging for diagnostic use in axolotl ophthalmology, showing that imaging of the lens can be performed without sedation, topical anesthetic, nor contact gel with high diagnostic quality. Although two distinct lenses were diagnosed with no historical evidence of trauma, the small sizes of each lenticular structure, with no detectable connection between them, are suggestive of a possible regenerative abnormality. This report opens discussion for the regenerative capabilities of the pre-metamorphic adult axolotl and possible implementations of their use in regenerative medicine research for the development of future therapies.

Comparative transcriptomics of limb regeneration: Identification of conserved expression changes among three species of Ambystoma

Transcriptome studies are revealing the complex gene expression basis of limb regeneration in the primary salamander model - Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl). To better understand this complexity, there is need to extend analyses to additional salamander species. Using microarray and RNA-Seq, we performed a comparative transcriptomic study using A. mexicanum and two other ambystomatid salamanders: A. andersoni, and A. maculatum. Salamanders were administered forelimb amputations and RNA was isolated and analyzed to identify 405 non-redundant genes that were commonly, differentially expressed 24 h post amputation. Many of the upregulated genes are predicted to function in wound healing and developmental processes, while many of the downregulated genes are typically expressed in muscle. The conserved transcriptional changes identified in this study provide a high-confidence dataset for identifying factors that simultaneous orchestrate wound healing and regeneration processes in response to injury, and more generally for identifying genes that are essential for salamander limb regeneration.

Multiplicity of Buc copies in Atlantic salmon contrasts with loss of the germ cell determinant in primates, rodents and axolotl

BACKGROUND

The primordial germ cells (PGCs) giving rise to gametes are determined by two different mechanisms in vertebrates. While the germ cell fate in mammals and salamanders is induced by zygotic signals, maternally delivered germ cell determinants specify the PGCs in birds, frogs and teleost fish. Assembly of the germ plasm in the oocyte is organized by the single Buc in zebrafish, named Velo1 in Xenopus, and by Oskar in Drosophila. Secondary loss of oskar in several insect lineages coincides with changes in germline determination strategies, while the presence of buc in mammals suggests functions not associated with germline formation.

RESULTS

To clarify the evolutionary history of buc we searched for the gene in genomes available from various chordates. No buc sequence was found in lamprey and chordate invertebrates, while the gene was identified in a conserved syntenic region in elephant shark, spotted gar, teleosts, Comoran coelacanth and most tetrapods. Rodents have probably lost the buc gene, while a premature translation stop was found in primates and in Mexican axolotl lacking germ plasm. In contrast, several buc and buc-like (bucL) paralogs were identified in the teleosts examined, including zebrafish, and the tetraploid genome of Atlantic salmon harbors seven buc and bucL genes. Maternal salmon buc1a, buc2a and buc2b mRNAs were abundant in unfertilized eggs together with dnd and vasa mRNAs. Immunostained salmon Buc1a was restricted to cleavage furrows in 4-cell stage embryos similar to a fluorescent zebrafish Buc construct injected in salmon embryos. Salmon Buc1a and Buc2a localized together with DnD, Vasa and Dazl within the Balbiani body of early oocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

Buc probably originated more than 400 million years ago and might have played an ancestral role in assembling germ plasm. Functional redundancy or subfunctionalization of salmon Buc paralogs in germline formation is suggested by the maternally inherited mRNAs of three salmon buc genes, the localized Buc1a in the cleavage furrows and the distribution of Buc1a and Buc2a in the Balbiani body during oogenesis. The extra-ovarian expression of salmon buc genes and the presence of a second zebrafish bucL gene suggest additional functions not related to germ cell specification.

A Tale of Two Axolotls

The Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) is an icon of culture, a revered aquarium pet, and a highly valued animal model in biomedical research. Unfortunately, Mexican axolotls are critically endangered in their natural Xochimilco habitat in Mexico City. If axolotls go extinct, current efforts to conserve the Xochimilico ecosystem will be undermined, as will efforts to genetically manage the laboratory populations that are needed to sustain research efforts around the world. A concerted global effort is needed to protect and manage this irreplaceable species in natural and laboratory environments.

Translational control of tropomyosin expression in vertebrate hearts

The tropomyosin (TM) gene family produces a set of related TM proteins with important functions in striated and smooth muscle, and nonmuscle cells. In vertebrate striated muscle, the thin filament consists largely of actin, TM, the troponin (Tn) complex (Tn-I, Tn-C and Tn-T), and tropomodulin (Tmod) and is responsible for mediating Ca(2+) control of muscle contraction and relaxation. There are four known genes (designated as TPM1, TPM2, TPM3, and TPM4) for TM in vertebrates. The four TM genes generate a multitude of tissue- and developmental-specific isoforms through the use of different promoters, alternative mRNA splicing, different 3'-end mRNA processing and tissue-specific translational control. In this review, we have focused mainly on the regulation of TM expression in striated muscles, primarily in vertebrate hearts with special emphasis on translational control using mouse and Mexican axolotl animal models.

Characterization of in vitro transcriptional responses of dorsal root ganglia cultured in the presence and absence of blastema cells from regenerating salamander limbs

During salamander limb regeneration, nerves provide signals that induce the formation of a mass of proliferative cells called the blastema. To better understand these signals, we developed a blastema−dorsal root ganglia (DRG) co‐culture model system to test the hypothesis that nerves differentially express genes in response to cues provided by the blastema. DRG with proximal and distal nerve trunks were isolated from axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum), cultured for 5 days, and subjected to microarray analysis. Relative to freshly isolated DRG, 1541 Affymetrix probe sets were identified as differentially expressed and many of the predicted genes are known to function in injury and neurodevelopmental responses observed for mammalian DRG. We then cultured 5‐day DRG explants for an additional 5 days with or without co‐cultured blastema cells. On day 10, we identified 27 genes whose expression in cultured DRG was significantly affected by the presence or absence of blastema cells. Overall, our study established a DRG−blastema in vitro culture system and identified candidate genes for future investigations of axon regrowth, nerve−blastema signaling, and neural regulation of limb regeneration.