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Jørgensen JK, Mikkelsen LP. Tailored cure profiles for simultaneous reduction of the cure time and shrinkage of an epoxy thermoset. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25450. [PMID: 38333857 PMCID: PMC10850905 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Defining the specific cure profile of thermosetting polymers is an important aspect in many applications where the mechanical performance and appearance of components can be affected. Cure-induced strains or stresses from the shrinkage of thermosets lead to reduced performance due to accelerated damage or discarded products due to distortions. This research focuses on validating a proposed modelling framework, simulating the load-transferring part of the curing process affecting the mechanical performance. The model's accuracy is evaluated against experimental results, and the model prediction is found to be within an accuracy of 2-8% of the experimental results. A 16-hour and 31-hour two-stage cure profile was compared and validated experimentally. The short profile results in a higher cure-induced of -0.56% with the longer profile yielding -0.46% cure-induced strain. Based on the model, a new three-stage cure profile has been proposed. Using this, it is possible to achieve a low level of cure-induced strain of -0.45% at a shorter cure time on 18 h.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesper K. Jørgensen
- Department of Wind and Energy Systems, Technical University of Denmark, Roskilde, DK-4000, Denmark
| | - Lars P. Mikkelsen
- Department of Wind and Energy Systems, Technical University of Denmark, Roskilde, DK-4000, Denmark
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Zhen X, Cui X, Al-Haimi AANM, Wang X, Liang H, Xu Z, Wang Z. Fully bio-based epoxy resins from lignin and epoxidized soybean oil: Rigid-flexible, tunable properties and high lignin content. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 254:127760. [PMID: 37926316 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
The application of epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) in thermosetting polymers is impeded by its unsatisfactory thermomechanical properties. Here, in order to address the limitation, technical lignin was modified by tung oil anhydride and then used as the hardener to compensate for the inherent flexibility defects of ESO thermosets (TLs). As the lignin content increased, a notable improvement in the activation energy of TLs was observed, attributed to the restraining effect of lignin's rigid structure on segmental relaxation. Concurrently, the tensile strength of TLs increased from 2.8 MPa to 34.0 MPa, concomitant with a decrease in elongation at break from 32.9 % to 8.0 %. Comparative analysis with TL-0 (devoid of lignin) demonstrated substantial enhancements in glass transition temperature, shape fixation ratio, and shape recovery ratio for TL-50 (comprising 50 wt% of lignin), elevating from 16.9 °C, 89.1 %, and 89.5 % to 118.6 °C, 94.0 %, and 99.3 %, respectively. These results unequivocally highlight the favorable dynamic mechanical and shape memory properties conferred upon TLs by lignin addition. While the introduction of lignin adversely affected thermal stability, a notable improvement in char yield (800 °C) was observed. Collectively, these findings underscore the potential of technical lignin as a promising bio-based curing agent for ESO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Zhen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, PR China; Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, PR China.
| | - Xuelu Cui
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, PR China
| | - Akram Ali Nasser Mansoor Al-Haimi
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, PR China; University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Xiaobing Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, PR China
| | - Huijun Liang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Xinxiang University, Xinxiang 453003, PR China
| | - Zhongbin Xu
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Zhongming Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
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Fusteș-Dămoc I, Măluțan T, Mija A. High content chitosan-based materials with high performance properties. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 223:263-272. [PMID: 36343834 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.10.270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Chitosan is a valuable biopolymer with a great potential to be used in the design of sustainable materials. Its use typically requires converting the solid powder into a quite dilute solution by disrupting the hydrogen bonding between primary amine and hydroxyl groups. In this work we show that chitosan can be reacted with a tris-aromatic tris-epoxy monomer, generating thermoset materials. The design of the new structures adopted a strategy where the chitosan was mixed in its solid form, to avoid the use of solvents and additional processing steps. A combined polymerization mechanism was proposed, including growth chain polymerization and polyaddition. The obtained materials containing different epoxy/chitosan weight percentage ratios show outstanding properties: high glass transition ~230 °C, high Young's modulus ~2116 and 1716 MPa, tensile strength of ~35 MPa and T5% ~ 300 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iolanda Fusteș-Dămoc
- Université Côte d'Azur, Institut de Chimie de Nice, UMR CNRS 7272, 06108 Nice, France; "Cristofor Simionescu" Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, "Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University of Iasi, 73 Prof. D. Mangeron Street, 700050 Iasi, Romania.
| | - Teodor Măluțan
- "Cristofor Simionescu" Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, "Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University of Iasi, 73 Prof. D. Mangeron Street, 700050 Iasi, Romania.
| | - Alice Mija
- Université Côte d'Azur, Institut de Chimie de Nice, UMR CNRS 7272, 06108 Nice, France.
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Johannessen C, Shetranjiwalla S. Role of Structural Morphology of Commodity Polymers in Microplastics and Nanoplastics Formation: Fragmentation, Effects and Associated Toxicity in the Aquatic Environment. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 2021; 259:123-169. [PMID: 34652560 DOI: 10.1007/398_2021_80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
With the continued growth in plastic production, its ubiquitous use and insufficient waste management and disposal, the increased levels of plastics in the environment have led to growing ecological concerns. The breakdown of these plastic macromolecules to smaller micro and nanosized particles and their detection in the aerial, aquatic, marine and terrestrial environments has been reviewed extensively, especially for thermoplastics. However, the formation of micro and nanoplastics has typically been explained as a physical abrasion process, largely overlooking the underlying chemical structure-morphology correlations to the degradation mechanisms of the plastics. This is particularly true for the common commodity thermosets. This review focuses on the degradation pathways for the most widely produced commodity thermoplastics and thermosets into microplastics (MP)s and nanoplastics (NP)s, as well as their behaviour and associated toxicity. Special emphasis is placed on NPs, which are associated with greater risks for toxicity compared to MPs, due to their higher surface area to volume ratios. This review also assesses the current state of standardized detection and quantification methods as well as comprehensive regulations for these fragments in the aquatic environment.
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Hejna A, Korol J, Przybysz-Romatowska M, Zedler Ł, Chmielnicki B, Formela K. Waste tire rubber as low-cost and environmentally-friendly modifier in thermoset polymers - A review. Waste Manag 2020; 108:106-118. [PMID: 32344299 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, waste tire rubber (WTR) management is a growing and serious problem. Therefore, research works focused on the development of cost-effective and environmentally-friendly methods of WTR recycling are fully justified. Incorporation of WTR into polymer matrices and composite materials attracts much attention, because this approach allows sustainable development of industrially applicable waste tires recycling technologies. Generally, utilization of WTR as a filler for polymer composites noticeably reduces materials costs, while suitable modification/functionalization of WTR may significantly enhance the performance of plastics and rubbers. This work aims to summarize the literature reports related to the thermoset/WTR composites based on various matrices such as: polyurethanes, epoxy and other resins. It particularly focuses on compatibilization strategies in thermosets/WTR systems and their impact on the chemistry and physical interfacial interactions between thermoset matrix and WTR filler phase, what significantly affecting performance properties of prepared materials. Moreover, future trends and limitation related to thermoset/WTR composites development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksander Hejna
- Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; Central Mining Institute, Department of Material Engineering, Pl. Gwarków 1, 40-166 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Jerzy Korol
- Central Mining Institute, Department of Material Engineering, Pl. Gwarków 1, 40-166 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Marta Przybysz-Romatowska
- Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Łukasz Zedler
- Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Błażej Chmielnicki
- Łukasiewicz Research Network, Institute for Engineering of Polymer Materials and Dyes, Paint & Plastics Department in Gliwice, 50 A Chorzowska Street, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Krzysztof Formela
- Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
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Sinha J, Dobson A, Bankhar O, Podgórski M, Shah PK, Zajdowicz SLW, Alotaibi A, Stansbury JW, Bowman CN. Vinyl sulfonamide based thermosetting composites via thiol-Michael polymerization. Dent Mater 2020; 36:249-256. [PMID: 31791733 PMCID: PMC7012731 DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2019.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the performance of thiol Michael photocurable composites based on ester-free thiols and vinyl sulfonamides of varying monomer structures and varied filler loadings and to contrast the properties of the prototype composites with conventional BisGMA-TEGDMA methacrylate composite. METHODS Synthetic divinyl sulfonamides and ester-free tetrafunctional thiol monomers were utilized for thiol-Michael composite development with the incorporation of thiolated microfiller. Polymerization kinetics was investigated using FTIR spectroscopy. Resin viscosities were assessed with rheometry. Water uptake properties were assessed according to standardized methods. Thermomechanical properties were analyzed by dynamic mechanical analysis. Flexural modulus/strength and flexural toughness were measured on a universal testing machine in three-point bending testing mode. RESULTS The vinyl sulfonamide-based thiol-Michael resin formulation demonstrated a wide range of viscosities with a significant increase in the functional group conversion when compared to the BisGMA-TEGDMA system. The two different types of vinyl sulfonamide under investigation demonstrated significant differences towards the water sorption. Tertiary vinyl sulfonamide did not undergo visible swelling whereas the secondary vinyl sulfonamide composite swelled extensively in water. With the introduction of rigid monomer into the polymer matrix the glass transition temperature increased and so increased the toughness. Glassy thiol-Michael composites were obtained by ambient curing. SIGNIFICANCE Employing the newly developed step-growth thiol-Michael resins in dental composites will provide structural uniformity, improved stability and lower water sorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine Sinha
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Adam Dobson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Osamah Bankhar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Maciej Podgórski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States; Department of Polymer Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Gliniana St. 33, Lublin 20-614, Poland
| | - Parag K Shah
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Sheryl L W Zajdowicz
- Department of Biology, Metropolitan State University of Denver, PO Box 173362, Campus Box #53, Denver, CO 80217, United States
| | - Abdulaziz Alotaibi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Jeffrey W Stansbury
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States; Department of Craniofacial Biology, School of Dental Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Christopher N Bowman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States.
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Feghali E, Torr KM, van de Pas DJ, Ortiz P, Vanbroekhoven K, Eevers W, Vendamme R. Thermosetting Polymers from Lignin Model Compounds and Depolymerized Lignins. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2018; 376:32. [PMID: 29992468 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-018-0211-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Lignin is the most abundant source of renewable ready-made aromatic chemicals for making sustainable polymers. However, the structural heterogeneity, high polydispersity, limited chemical functionality and solubility of most technical lignins makes them challenging to use in developing new bio-based polymers. Recently, greater focus has been given to developing polymers from low molecular weight lignin-based building blocks such as lignin monomers or lignin-derived bio-oils that can be obtained by chemical depolymerization of lignins. Lignin monomers or bio-oils have additional hydroxyl functionality, are more homogeneous and can lead to higher levels of lignin substitution for non-renewables in polymer formulations. These potential polymer feed stocks, however, present their own challenges in terms of production (i.e., yields and separation), pre-polymerization reactions and processability. This review provides an overview of recent developments on polymeric materials produced from lignin-based model compounds and depolymerized lignin bio-oils with a focus on thermosetting materials. Particular emphasis is given to epoxy resins, polyurethanes and phenol-formaldehyde resins as this is where the research shows the greatest overlap between the model compounds and bio-oils. The common goal of the research is the development of new economically viable strategies for using lignin as a replacement for petroleum-derived chemicals in aromatic-based polymers.
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