Larval Development of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Mud Supplemented With Manure of Various Farm Animals

Understanding factors that affect Culicoides larval development is critical in suppressing adult midge populations that transmit economically important pathogens to ruminants such as bluetongue virus and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus. In this study, development of Culicoides sonorensis Wirth and Jones (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) was investigated in sterilized mud mixed with varying concentrations (3.2, 6.4, 12.6, 25.0, 50.0, and 100.0%) of dairy cattle and white tailed deer manures. In addition, C. sonorensis development was also evaluated in manure (25.0% concentration) of six other farm animals (beef cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse, and chicken). First instar larvae (~100/treatment) were added to each substrate, and adult emergence and development times were monitored for 90 d. In substrates with dairy cattle manure, significantly more adults emerged (≥76.7%) and development time was shorter (≤25.5 d) from 25.0% manure substrate than from lower or higher manure concentrations (≤41.3% emerged; ≥31.2 d). Comparatively, white-tailed deer and chicken manures supported C. sonorensis development poorly with low emergence rates (deer ≤ 13.0%; chicken = 0%) and longer development time (deer ≥ 29.0 d). Mud enriched with manure of beef cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and horse generally supported C. sonorensis development, although adult emergence and development times varied widely between species. These results suggest that manure of several farm animals, except for white-tailed deer and chicken, can contribute substantially to C. sonorensis development in the field. Therefore, the potential of animals other than cattle in sustaining local populations of C. sonorensis cannot be overlooked when designing management strategies.

Growth and Productivity Response of Hybrid Rice to Application of Animal Manures, Plant Residues and Phosphorus

The objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of organic sources (animal manures vs. plant residues at the rate of 10 t ha^-1 each) on the productivity of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.) production under different levels of phosphorus (0, 30, 60, and 90 kg P ha^-1) fertilization. Two separate field experiments were conducted. In experiment (1), impact of three animal manures sources (cattle, sheep, and poultry manures) and P levels were studied along with one control plot (no animal manure and P applied) was investigated. In experiment (2), three plant residues sources (peach leaves, garlic residues, and wheat straw) and P levels were studied along with one control plot (no plant residues and P applied). Both the experiments were carried out on small land farmer field at District Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (Northwest Pakistan) during summer 2015. The results revealed that in both experiments the control plot had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) less productivity than the average of all treated plots with organic sources and P level. The increase in P levels in both experiments (animal manure vs. plant residues) resulted in higher rice productivity (90 > 60 > 30 > 0 kg P ha^-1). In the experiment under animal manures, application of poultry manure increased rice productivity as compared with sheep and cattle manures (poultry > sheep > cattle manures). In the experiment under plant residues, application of peach leaves or garlic residues had higher rice productivity than wheat straw (peach leaves = garlic residues > wheat straw). On average, rice grown under animal manures produced about 20% higher grain yield than rice grown under crop residues. We conclude from this study that application of 90 kg P ha^-1 along with combined application of animal manures, especially poultry manure increases rice productivity. Also, the use of either garlic residues or peach leaves, never applied before as organic manures, can increase crop productivity and will help in degraded soil for sustainable soil management.