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Abstract
The Half-Century long problem of addiction treatment disparities. We cannot imagine addressing disparities in addiction treatment without first acknowledging and deconstructing the etiology of this inequity. This article examines the history of addiction treatment disparities beginning with early twentieth-century drug policies. We begin by discussing structural racism, its contribution to treatment disparities, using opioid use disorder as a case study to highlight the importance of a structural competency framework in obtaining care. We conclude by discussing diversity in the workforce as an additional tool to minimizing disparities. Addiction treatment should be aimed at addressing care delivery in the context of the social, economic, and political determinants of health, which require appreciation of their historical origins to move toward equitable treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle S Jackson
- Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers- Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 671 Hoes Lane West, 2nd Floor, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
| | - Max Jordan Nguemeni Tiako
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA. https://twitter.com/MaxJordan_N
| | - Ayana Jordan
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY. https://twitter.com/DrAyanaJordan
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Watson CJ, Whitledge JD, Siani AM, Burns MM. Pharmaceutical Compounding: a History, Regulatory Overview, and Systematic Review of Compounding Errors. J Med Toxicol 2021; 17:197-217. [PMID: 33140232 PMCID: PMC7605468 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-020-00814-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Medications are compounded when a formulation of a medication is needed but not commercially available. Regulatory oversight of compounding is piecemeal and compounding errors have resulted in patient harm. We review compounding in the United States (US), including a history of compounding, a critique of current regulatory oversight, and a systematic review of compounding errors recorded in the literature. METHODS We gathered reports of compounding errors occurring in the US from 1990 to 2020 from PubMed, Embase, several relevant conference abstracts, and the US Food and Drug Administration "Drug Alerts and Statements" repository. We categorized reports into errors of "contamination," suprapotency," and "subpotency." Errors were also subdivided by whether they resulted in morbidity and mortality. We reported demographic, medication, and outcome data where available. RESULTS We screened 2155 reports and identified 63 errors. Twenty-one of 63 were errors of concentration, harming 36 patients. Twenty-seven of 63 were contamination errors, harming 1119 patients. Fifteen errors did not result in any identified harm. DISCUSSION Compounding errors are attributed to contamination or concentration. Concentration errors predominantly result from compounding a prescription for a single patient, and disproportionately affect children. Contamination errors largely occur during bulk distribution of compounded medications for parenteral use, and affect more patients. The burden falls on the government, pharmacy industry, and medical providers to reduce the risk of patient harm caused by compounding errors. CONCLUSION In the US, drug compounding is important in ensuring access to vital medications, but has the potential to cause patient harm without adequate safeguards.
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Affiliation(s)
- C James Watson
- Harvard Medical Toxicology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 333 Longwood Avenue, Mailstop 3025, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - James D Whitledge
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Michele M Burns
- Harvard Medical Toxicology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 333 Longwood Avenue, Mailstop 3025, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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Gabriel JM, Holman B. Clinical trials and the origins of pharmaceutical fraud: Parke, Davis & Company, virtue epistemology, and the history of the fundamental antagonism. Hist Sci 2020; 58:533-558. [PMID: 32713203 DOI: 10.1177/0073275320942435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes one possible origin point for fraudulent behavior within the American pharmaceutical industry. We argue that during the late nineteenth century therapeutic reformers sought to promote both laboratory science and increasingly systematized forms of clinical experiment as a new basis for therapeutic knowledge. This process was intertwined with a transformation in the ethical framework in which medical science took place, one in which monopoly status was replaced by clinical utility as the primary arbiter of pharmaceutical legitimacy. This new framework fundamentally altered the set of epistemic virtues-a phrase we draw from the philosophical field of virtue epistemology-considered necessary to conduct reliable scientific inquiry regarding drugs. In doing so, it also made possible new forms of fraud in which newly emergent epistemic virtues were violated. To make this argument, we focus on the efforts of Francis E. Stewart and George S. Davis of Parke, Davis & Company. Therapeutic reformers within the pharmaceutical industry, such as Stewart and Davis, were an important part of the broader normative and epistemic transformation we describe in that they sought to promote laboratory science and systematized clinical trials toward the twin goals of improving pharmaceutical science and promoting their own commercial interests. Yet, as we suggest, Parke, Davis & Company also serves as an example of a company that violated the very norms that Stewart and Davis helped introduce. We thus seek to describe one possible origin point for the widespread fraudulent practices that now characterize the pharmaceutical industry. We also seek to describe an origin point for why we conceptualize such practices as fraudulent in the first place.
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Key J, Hoare K. Nurse prescribing in New Zealand-the difference in levels of prescribing explained. N Z Med J 2020; 133:111-118. [PMID: 33119574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This article discusses the three types of nurse prescriber currently registered in New Zealand (nurse practitioners, registered nurse prescribers (RNP) in primary health and specialty teams and registered nurse prescribers (RNPCH) in community health). It also provides an overview of the evolution of each group, as well as a summary of the current legislation, prescribing restrictions and models of supervision required for each type of prescriber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Key
- Senior Lecturer/Nurse Practitioner, School of Nursing, College of Health, Massey University/Waitemata DHB, Auckland
| | - Karen Hoare
- Associate Professor/Nurse Practitioner School of Nursing, College of Health, Massey University/Greenstone Family Clinic, Auckland
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Steenhoek A, Koopmanschap M, Piepenbrink JF. [40 years of medicines policy in the Netherlands: from financial constraints to medicines shortages?]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2020; 164:D4568. [PMID: 32391989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
On a near daily basis, medicines make the news. Abstract topics such as international pricing policy or medicines patents, and concrete topics such as medicines shortages are regularly reported on. In this article, we summarise a 40-year-history of medicines policy in the Netherlands. Furthermore, we briefly touch upon future directions in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adri Steenhoek
- Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Erasmus School of Health Policy & Management, Rotterdam
- Contact: Adri Steenhoek
| | - Marc Koopmanschap
- Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Erasmus School of Health Policy & Management, Rotterdam
| | - J F Piepenbrink
- Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Erasmus School of Health Policy & Management, Rotterdam
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhruv Khullar
- From the Department of Healthcare Policy and Research and the Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine (D.K.), and the Center for Health Policy and Outcomes, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (J.A.O., P.B.B.) - both in New York; and the Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge (M.T.)
| | - Jennifer A Ohn
- From the Department of Healthcare Policy and Research and the Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine (D.K.), and the Center for Health Policy and Outcomes, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (J.A.O., P.B.B.) - both in New York; and the Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge (M.T.)
| | - Mark Trusheim
- From the Department of Healthcare Policy and Research and the Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine (D.K.), and the Center for Health Policy and Outcomes, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (J.A.O., P.B.B.) - both in New York; and the Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge (M.T.)
| | - Peter B Bach
- From the Department of Healthcare Policy and Research and the Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine (D.K.), and the Center for Health Policy and Outcomes, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (J.A.O., P.B.B.) - both in New York; and the Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge (M.T.)
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Abstract
IMPORTANCE US law requires testing of new drugs before approval to ensure that they provide a well-defined benefit that is commensurate with their risks. A major challenge for the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is to achieve an appropriate balance between rigorous testing and the need for timely approval of drugs that have benefits that outweigh their risks. OBJECTIVE To describe the evolution of laws and standards affecting drug testing, the use of new approval programs and standards, expansions of the role and authority of the FDA, and changes in the number of drugs approved from the 1980s to 2018. EVIDENCE Sources of evidence included principal federal laws and FDA regulations (1962-2018) and FDA databases of approved new drugs (1984-2018), generic drugs (1970-2018), biologics (1984-2018), and vaccines (1998-2018); special development and approval programs (Orphan drug [1984-2018], Fast-Track [1988-2018], Priority Review and its predecessors [1984-2018], Accelerated Approval [1992-2018], and Breakthrough Therapy [2012-2018]); expanded access (2010-2017) and Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (2008-2018); and user fees paid to the FDA by industry (1993-2018). FINDINGS From 1983 to 2018, legislation and regulatory initiatives have substantially changed drug approval at the FDA. The mean annual number of new drug approvals, including biologics, was 34 from 1990-1999, 25 from 2000-2009, and 41 from 2010-2018. New biologic product approvals increased from a median of 2.5 from 1990-1999, to 5 from 2000-2013, to 12 from 2014-2018. The median annual number of generic drugs approved was 136 from 1970 to the enactment of the Hatch-Waxman Act in 1984; 284 from 1985 to the enactment of the Generic Drug User Fee Act in 2012; and 588 from 2013-2018. Prescription drug user fee funding expanded from new drugs and biologics in 1992 to generic and biosimilar drugs in 2012. The amount of Prescription Drug User Fee Act fees collected from industry increased from an annual mean of $66 million in 1993-1997 to $820 million in 2013-2017, and in 2018, user fees accounted for approximately 80% of the salaries of review personnel responsible for the approval of new drugs. The proportion of drugs approved with an Orphan Drug Act designation increased from 18% (55/304) in 1984-1995, to 22% (82/379) in 1996-2007, to 41% (154/380) in 2008-2018. Use of Accelerated Approval, Fast-Track, and Priority Review for new drugs has increased over time, with 81% (48/59) of new drugs benefiting from at least 1 such expedited program in 2018. The proportion of new approvals supported by at least 2 pivotal trials decreased from 80.6% in 1995-1997 to 52.8% in 2015-2017, based on 124 and 106 approvals, respectively, while the median number of patients studied did not change significantly (774 vs 816). FDA drug review times declined from more than 3 years in 1983 to less than 1 year in 2017, but total time from the authorization of clinical testing to approval has remained at approximately 8 years over that period. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Over the last 4 decades, the approval and regulation processes for pharmaceutical agents have evolved and increased in complexity as special programs have been added and as the use of surrogate measures has been encouraged. The FDA funding needed to implement and manage these programs has been addressed by expanding industry-paid user fees. The FDA has increasingly accepted less data and more surrogate measures, and has shortened its review times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Darrow
- Program On Regulation, Therapeutics, And Law (PORTAL), Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Jerry Avorn
- Program On Regulation, Therapeutics, And Law (PORTAL), Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Aaron S Kesselheim
- Program On Regulation, Therapeutics, And Law (PORTAL), Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Patton DV. A History of United States Cannabis Law. J Law Health 2020; 34:1-29. [PMID: 33449455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Perhaps the best way to understand early-Twenty-First Century state and federal cannabis law in the United States is to examine the relevant history. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.'s statement is apropos: "[A] page of history is worth a volume of logic." This article begins by discussing the early history of cannabis and its uses. Next, the article examines the first state and federal marijuana laws. After a brief comparison of alcohol prohibition to cannabis prohibition, this article addresses cannabis laws from the 1920s to the early 1950s. Then, the article takes up the reorganization of the federal drug regulatory bureaucracy since its inception. Addressing the current era of cannabis laws and regulations, this article recounts how marijuana became a Schedule I drug. The discussion then turns to changing social attitudes towards cannabis as reflected in presidential politics and popular culture. Starting with the late-1990s, this article describes the development of state and federal cannabis laws and policies up to the present day.
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Blair TS. Narcotic Drug Addiction as Regulated by a State Department of Health. JAMA 2019; 321:1832. [PMID: 31087012 DOI: 10.1001/jama.2018.15330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua M Sharfstein
- Vice Dean for Public Health Practice and Community Engagement at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
| | - Yngvild Olsen
- Medical director of the Institutes for Behavior Resources, Inc, an addiction treatment program in Baltimore, Maryland
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Leal-Galicia P, Betancourt D, Gonzalez-Gonzalez A, Romo-Parra H. [A brief history of marijuana in the western world]. Rev Neurol 2018; 67:133-140. [PMID: 30039841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Marijuana is a substance with a long and controversial history. At different times in its history, which goes back over 5,000 years, this plant has been used for different purposes, ranging from recreational and leisure to its use in the treatment of several diseases or to offer relief in processes that entail a certain type of malaise, and including its consideration as a means of relaxation and meditation. Although it was supposed that the roots of marijuana lay in Central America, it is now known that this is but an urban legend with little credibility and that its origins can be found recorded in Chinese medical references dating back to the year 2737 BC. Although this plant was not originally from Central America, it has aroused interest around the world, and above all in Mexico. It is in this country where the use of cannabis has gone from applications in textiles and medicine to its free sale, the bans on its use due to political and social pressures, its tolerance and, recently, its decriminalisation for recreational and medicinal use. Unfortunately there are few references on the history of this plant in Mexico, and thus we have considered it interesting to present some data about the generalities of marijuana, a brief history in the world, the development of decriminalisation in North America, its medicinal uses and its course through Mexico to the present day.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - D Betancourt
- Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte, Mexico DF, Mexico
| | | | - H Romo-Parra
- Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte, Mexico DF, Mexico
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Abstract
Drug development prior to 1800 was based almost completely on observational trial and error. The earliest known exception was a controlled drug trial conducted by James Lind in 1747 on an English ship to show the effectiveness of citrus fruit in the treatment of scurvy. Clinical tests, but not concurrent comparative trials, were conducted by Charles Maitland in 1722 in London to show the effectiveness of variolation in preventing smallpox, and a controlled drug trial was conducted by Edward Jenner in London in 1796 to show the effectiveness of material taken from cowpox sores of young milkmaids (later called smallpox vaccine) in preventing smallpox. In 1775, William Withering learned from an elderly woman herbalist in Shropshire, England about her use of the Foxglove plant (whose active ingredient Withering later determined to be digitalis) in treating heart disease, and in 1785 published the results of his treatment of 158 patients with the drug, but he did not conduct a controlled study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B Hutt
- Mr. Hutt is Senior Counsel in the Washington, D.C. law firm of Covington and Burling LLP and Lecturer on Food and Drug Law at Harvard Law School. He served as Food and Drug Administration Chief Counsel during 1971-1975. This Article represents the author's understanding of the history of the Food and Drug Administration based on his multi-decade experience working in and out of the Agency. Accordingly, there are no footnote citations except for quoted material from other persons or publications. Any factual inaccuracies are the author's own
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Abstract
After 40 years, the 1976 US Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was revised under the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act. Its original goals of protecting the public from hazardous chemicals were hindered by complex and cumbersome administrative burdens, data limitations, vulnerabilities in risk assessments, and recurring corporate lawsuits. As a result, countless chemicals were entered into commercial use without toxicological information. Few chemicals of the many identified as potential public health threats were regulated or banned. This paper explores the factors that have worked against a comprehensive and rational policy for regulating toxic chemicals and discusses whether the TSCA revisions offer greater public protection against existing and new chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheldon Krimsky
- Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry H Gurwitz
- Meyers Primary Care Institute, a joint endeavor of University of Massachusetts Medical School, Fallon Health, and Reliant Medical Group, Worcester2Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester
| | - Alice Bonner
- Massachusetts Executive Office of Elder Affairs, Boston
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Abstract
This article provides a brief history of the development of the field of immunotoxicology from one individual perspective and separates the discussion into five phases: the methods development and validation phase; the compound testing phase; the many meetings and organization of the specialty section phase; the mechanistic studies phase; and the guidelines phase. During the discussion of each phase, major highlights, accomplishments, contributors and key references are provided. The immunotoxicology guidelines for the testing of pharmaceutical chemical entities across the three major geographic axes are also presented and compared, along with some of the concerns raised by industry with these guidelines. The mandatory requirement of functional tests represents the major concern and difference between the Committee of Proprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP) and the new Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidance. The scientific basis for the recommendation of the functional tests proposed in the guidance documents based on National Institute of Environmental Health and Safety/National Toxicology Program (NIEHS/NTP)-sponsored studies is described. Experience at Sanofi-Synthelabo, with the testing of 29 new chemical drug entities developed across a broad range of therapeutic classes using this testing paradigm and functional tests to define their immunotoxic potential, yielded a low number of compounds (6.8%) that produced any abnormal reaction. The two positive compounds might have been anticipated based on their pharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack H Dean
- International Preclinical Development, Sanofi-Synthelabo Inc., 9 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, PA 19355, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason L Schwartz
- From the Department of Health Policy and Management, Yale School of Public Health, and the Section of the History of Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
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Chju P. The First Hu ndred Year s of Western Pharmacy in Coloni al Hong Kong ( 1841-1940). Pharm Hist (Lond) 2016; 46:42-49. [PMID: 29999264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
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Abstract
It is often suggested that, in the past 50 years, Vietnam has experienced a traditional medicine ‘revival’ that can be traced back to late President Ho Chi Minh's 1955 appeal ‘to study means of uniting the effects of oriental remedies with those of Europe’. In this article, I demonstrate how traditional herbal medicine came to be recruited as an important component of national efforts to promote the public health of urban and rural populations in Vietnam. Importantly, this has entailed a rejection of a colonial biopolitics that sought to marginalize ‘quackery’ in favour of a postcolonial bio-politics that aims to promote the ‘appropriate’ use of traditional herbal medicines. While the Vietnamese case bears many parallels to other countries in this respect, notably China, Vietnam's ancient history of medicine, postcolonial isolation and extensive health delivery network have resulted in a unique strategy that encourages rural populations to become self-sufficient in the herbal treatment of their most common illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayo Wahlberg
- London School of Economics and Political Science, UK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Bothwell
- From the Program on Regulation, Therapeutics, and Law, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School (L.E.B.), and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School (S.H.P., D.S.J.), Boston, and the Department of the History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge (D.S.J.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Division of General Internal Medicine and the Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore (J.A.G.)
| | - Jeremy A Greene
- From the Program on Regulation, Therapeutics, and Law, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School (L.E.B.), and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School (S.H.P., D.S.J.), Boston, and the Department of the History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge (D.S.J.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Division of General Internal Medicine and the Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore (J.A.G.)
| | - Scott H Podolsky
- From the Program on Regulation, Therapeutics, and Law, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School (L.E.B.), and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School (S.H.P., D.S.J.), Boston, and the Department of the History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge (D.S.J.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Division of General Internal Medicine and the Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore (J.A.G.)
| | - David S Jones
- From the Program on Regulation, Therapeutics, and Law, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School (L.E.B.), and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School (S.H.P., D.S.J.), Boston, and the Department of the History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge (D.S.J.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Division of General Internal Medicine and the Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore (J.A.G.)
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Kirchhelle C. Toxic confusion: the dilemma of antibiotic regulation in West German food production (1951-1990). Endeavour 2016; 40:114-127. [PMID: 27084417 PMCID: PMC4917893 DOI: 10.1016/j.endeavour.2016.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
• Cultural risk prioritization strongly influences antibiotic regulation. • West German risk vernaculars and epistemes were residue-focussed. • Hazards resulting from bacterial resistance selection were neglected. • Successful bacterial resistance regulation depends on effective risk staging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claas Kirchhelle
- University of Oxford, Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, 45-47 Banbury Road, United Kingdom
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Anderson SA. The Rise and Fall of the Liverpool Apothecaries Company 1836 to 1904. Pharm Hist (Lond) 2016; 46:17-22. [PMID: 29998721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
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Abstract
In 2015, U.S. government agencies began considering greater regulation of both homeopathic drugs and the advertising of such products. These actions came after more than a century of missed opportunities to regulate homeopathic medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott H Podolsky
- From the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School (S.H.P.), and the Program on Regulation, Therapeutics, and Law (PORTAL), Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital (A.S.K.) - both in Boston
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Bloniecki Kallio V, Guterstam J, Franck J. [Substitution therapy tested against amphetamine dependence]. Lakartidningen 2016; 113:DSU6. [PMID: 26756343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Amphetamine dependence is relatively common in Sweden and it is the most frequently used substance among patients with intravenous drug abuse. Current treatment options are limited but recently substitution therapy with psychostimulant medication has been evaluated in several clinical trials. Such treatment is controversial in Sweden, perhaps due to the failure of experimental prescription of psychostimulants in the 1960s. Recent clinical trials however indicate that structured treatment programs with psychostimulants might have positive effects, although the results are inconsistent and the evidence base is still limited. Future research is needed in order to determine the potential role of substitution therapy for amphetamine dependence in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joar Guterstam
- Karolinska Institutet - Clinical neuroscience Stockholm, Sweden Karolinska Institutet - Clinical neuroscience Stockholm, Sweden
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy A Greene
- From the Division of General Internal Medicine and the Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore (J.A.G.); and the Department of Anthropology, History and Social Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco (E.S.W.)
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Freckelton I. MEDICINAL CANNABIS LAW REFORM: LESSONS FROM CANADIAN LITIGATION. J Law Med 2015; 22:719-738. [PMID: 26349373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This editorial reviews medicinal cannabis litigation in Canada's superior courts between 1998 and 2015. It reflects upon the outcomes of the decisions and the reasoning within them. It identifies the issues that have driven Canada's jurisprudence in relation to access to medicinal cannabis, particularly insofar as it has engaged patients' rights to liberty and security of the person. It argues that the sequence of medicinal schemes adopted and refined in Canada provides constructive guidance for countries such as Australia which are contemplating introduction of medicinal cannabis as a therapeutic option in compassionate circumstances for patients. In particular, it contends that Canada's experience suggests that strategies calculated to introduce such schemes in a gradualist way, enabling informed involvement by medical practitioners and pharmacists, and that provide for safe and inexpensive accessibility to forms of medicinal cannabis that are clearly distinguished from recreational use and unlikely to be diverted criminally maximise the chances of such schemes being accepted by key stakeholders.
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Abstract
As President Jimmy Carter's advisor for health issues, Peter Bourne promoted a rational and comprehensive drug strategy that combined new supply-side efforts to prevent drug use with previously established demand-side addiction treatment programs. Using a public health ethic that allowed the impact of substances on overall population health to guide drug control, Bourne advocated for marijuana decriminalization as well as increased regulations for barbiturates. A hostile political climate, a series of rumors, and pressure from both drug legalizers and prohibitionists caused Bourne to resign in disgrace in 1978. We argue that Bourne's critics used his own public health framework to challenge him, describe the health critiques that contributed to Bourne's resignation, and present the story of his departure as a cautionary tale for today's drug policy reformers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire D Clark
- At the time of this work, Claire D. Clark was with the Institute of Liberal Arts, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, and the John P. McGovern Center for Humanities and Ethics, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston. Emily Dufton was with the Department of American Studies, George Washington University, Washington, DC
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Kesselheim AS, Darrow JJ. Hatch-Waxman Turns 30: Do We Need a Re-Designed Approach for the Modern Era? Yale J Health Policy Law Ethics 2015; 15:293-347. [PMID: 26333236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In 1984, Congress passed the Hatch-Waxman Act, which catalyzed the creation of the modem generic drug industry. Generic drugs today account for eighty-four percent of all prescriptions dispensed, but less than twenty percent of drug costs. Despite this success, numerous problems in the generic drug market have emerged. Some involve the deliberate manipulation of the Hatch-Waxman system, while others have arisen more unexpectedly, such as the Supreme Court's 2011 decision in Pliva v. Mensing that could undermine consumer confidence in generic drugs. We discuss these emerging challenges and propose updates to the Hatch-Waxman Act to continue support for the timely emergence of safe generic drugs.
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Reiman A. 'Confirmation bias' prevents reconsideration of cannabis. Behav Healthc 2014; 34:10-11. [PMID: 24864542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
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Swan M, Rizzo M. Public history and mass incarceration: interview with Martha Swan. Public Hist 2014; 36:61-70. [PMID: 24988787 DOI: 10.1525/tph.2014.36.1.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Nonprofit human rights organization John Brown Lives! uses local and regional history as a tool to raise contemporary questions around racial injustice, inspired by the work of controversial abolitionist leader John Brown. In this interview, founder Martha Swan discusses how John Brown Lives! uses public history, from a series of community conversations around mass incarceration and drug laws to a traveling exhibit on voting rights in nineteenth century New York State, to encourage people to question the narrative of American history, the meaning of freedom, the role of policy in racial issues, and the connections between history and place.
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London J. Tragedy, transformation, and triumph: comparing the factors and forces that led to the adoption of the 1860 Adulteration Act in England and the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States. Food Drug Law J 2014; 69:315-iii. [PMID: 25163213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The 1860 Adulteration Act in England and the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States were two of the earliest pieces of legislation to provide generalized regulation of food and drugs on a national scale. While significant scholarly attention has been given to explaining the factors and forces that led to the passage of each Act independent of the other, few books or articles have directly compared the similar individuals and events that led to the adoption of both Acts. This paper attempts to fill that gap. Through a comparative examination, this paper reveals that four main components were key to the national pure food and drug movements in both countries: individuals who crusaded for national adulteration legislation; tragedies that shocked the public into calling for reform; press and publicity that was willing and able to bring the evils of adulteration to the forefront of the public mind; and a transformation of the social, political, and economic systems, which created atmospheres conducive to reform. This paper aims to shed new light on the 1860 Adulteration Act and the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act--two acts that derive their importance not just from the effect that they directly had on the regulation of food and drugs but also as some of the earliest examples of western governments coming to recognize the need for national regulation to protect the public from harm and coming to embrace their changing role as spearheads of modern regulatory states.
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Sauer F. [Major milestones for European pharmaceutical policy]. Rev Hist Pharm (Paris) 2014; 62:61-74. [PMID: 25668913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Under the 1985 White Paper on the completion of the single market, several pharmaceutical harmonisation measures were unanimously adopted, in favor of biotech products and on pricing transparency, legal status of prescription, wholesale distribution and advertising. The European pharmaceutical harmonisation was extended to Norway and Iceland, to new accession member states and through major international conferences with the US and Japan (ICH). Starting in 1995, the European medicines agency has produced an efficient marketing authorisation system for new human and veterinary medicines. The system was extended to pediatric medicines and advanced therapies. The monitoring of drug adverse effects (pharmacovigilance) has been gradually strengthened.
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Marchant A. When 'drugs' become 'drugs': issues of pharmaceutical abuse in France from the 1960s to the 1990s. Med Secoli 2014; 26:575-614. [PMID: 26054215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Since the 1970s, media frenzies about drug addiction have focused mainly on illicit drugs taken by rebellious or marginalised addicts, relegating iatrogenic drug abuse, and policies and problems linked to psychotropic pharmaceuticals available by prescription or over-the-counter to the shadows. In this article I go beyond the division between illicit drugs and medicines still configuring both public representations and historiography: using archival materials from the 1960s-1990s in France, I highlight some blind spots in drug history. Firstly I demonstrate the role of pharmaceutical abuse in the career of addicts, and then examine regulation policies, which are the dark side, however complementary, of drug policies and prohibition. Finally, I analyse the role of physicians and pharmacists in this control, and discuss the various professional debates relating to the legal supply of psychoactive drugs. In all these issues, the frame of the Cold War context will also be highlighted.
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Kłys M, Maciów-Głab M, Rojek S. [On the history of opium]. Arch Med Sadowej Kryminol 2013; 63:226-235. [PMID: 24672899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Most likely, opium was the first narcotic substance discovered at the dawn of humankind. The history of drug addiction is immensely rich and allows for tracing the long way humankind had to travel to reach the contemporary level of consciousness with respect to narcotic substances. A retrospective view of drug addiction that takes into consideration the historical context, while extending our knowledge, also allows for a better understanding of today's problems. The report presents elements of a retrospective view of problems associated with addiction to opium, morphine and heroin over the centuries, what is a subject of scientific interest in contemporary toxicology.
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MESH Headings
- Global Health
- Heroin/history
- Heroin Dependence/history
- History, 15th Century
- History, 16th Century
- History, 17th Century
- History, 18th Century
- History, 19th Century
- History, 20th Century
- History, 21st Century
- History, Ancient
- History, Medieval
- Humans
- Illicit Drugs/history
- Legislation, Drug/history
- Morphine/history
- Morphine Dependence/history
- Opioid-Related Disorders/history
- Opium/history
- Public Opinion
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Abstract
During the relatively short history of class proceedings in Canada, developers and manufacturers of medical devices and pharmaceuticals ("medical products"), including medical products designed for patients with diabetes, have found themselves at the receiving end of a significant number of class action claims. As a result, medical products litigation has become the battleground for some of the most significant developments in Canadian class actions law. This article provides a broad overview of some of the most significant developments. The authors pay particular attention to developments regarding the test for class action certification and consider whether high-profile dismissals of certification motions represent a trend toward raising the threshold for plaintiffs seeking to obtain certification of a proposed class action. The authors also consider a decision arising out of a lengthy class action common issues trial in which the medical device company was victorious. In the authors' view, the class action pendulum in Canada, particularly as it relates to medical products claims, remains in motion. It behooves all affected players to keep their eye on this ball with rapt attention to see where it may move next.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Pliszka
- Fasken Martineau DuMoulin LLP, 333 Bay St., Ste. 2400, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5H 2T6.
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Tang WL. Revitalizing the patent system to incentivize pharmaceutical innovation: the potential of claims with means-plus-function clauses. Duke Law J 2013; 62:1069-1108. [PMID: 25330553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The pharmaceutical industry relies on innovation. However, many innovative firms are cutting their research and development investments and seeing their new product pipelines dry up, due in part to a lack of sufficient patent protection. This Note identifies two major factors that have caused this inadequacy in patent protection. First, pharmaceutical patents are challenged early and often by generic manufacturers, as encouraged by the 1984 Hatch-Waxman Act. Second, the scope of pharmaceutical-patents is sometimes unduly restrained due to limited application of the doctrine of equivalents. Consequently, pharmaceutical patents, especially drug-product patents, are easily designed around and cannot offer the protection necessary for innovative firms to recoup their developmental costs. This Note argues for a wider application of means-plus-function clauses in pharmaceutical patents as a potential cure for this problem. Means-plus-function claims, although authorized by Congress in the 1952 Patent Act, have not been explored much in the pharmaceutical context. This Note argues that this claiming strategy is not only appropriate but also particularly effective for pharmaceutical patents. Means-plus-function claims would give drug-product patents adequate scope even with the limited use of the doctrine of equivalents and thus would provide the protection necessary for innovative firms to withstand frequent attacks by generic manufacturers. Finally, this Note examines issues anticipated with applying means-plus-function claims to pharmaceutical patents and proposes possible solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron S Kesselheim
- Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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Vranová V. [A contribution to the development of advertising in pharmacy II. Historical development of regulation of advertising of medicinal products]. Ceska Slov Farm 2012; 61:240-243. [PMID: 23256658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The article deals with the development of regulation of advertising of medicinal products in the Czech Lands of the Habsburg Monarchy and Czechoslovakia in the years 1775-1938. Advertising medicines had and has its specifics and its regulation had been addressed by specific standards and linked to other health laws and regulations. Regulation of advertising of medicinal products has undergone a long process from the initial total ban on advertising to the establishment of clear rules, some of which, such as restrictions on advertising prescription-only medicines only to the professional healthcare press, are still valid.
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Demouy I. [From ancient pot collections to the modern medicines. Menier's pot collection-19th century]. Rev Hist Pharm (Paris) 2012; 59:511-521. [PMID: 22530283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
At the beginning of the 19th century in 1816, Jean Antoine Brutus Menier founded the "Maison Centrale de Droguerie Menier". It supplied most of the pharmacies in France with drugs of animal, plant and mineral origin for the pharmaceutical preparations recommended at that time. The company provided training for many chemists and pharmacists, and as such, had a collection of pots containing over seven hundred drugs that is currently held at the head office of the Council of the College of Pharmacists in Paris. After having described the pot collection, set it against the 19th century background which experienced a real revolution within this profession, and after retracing its history, a study was then carried out in order to compare the former uses with the modern uses for each of the drugs. Thanks to this detailed, comparative analysis it is now possible to evaluate the relevance of the therapeutic range of drugs in the first half of the 19th century, before the significant rise in chemistry. The Germinal Law changed the pharmacist's profession, and with the birth of chemistry, the art of the pharmacy was revolutionised. However, the drugs, and particularly those of plant origin, have managed to keep a dominant position in today's pharmaceutical domain and in the French or European Pharmacopoeia.
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Cetel JS. Disease-branding and drug-mongering: could pharmaceutical industry promotional practices result in tort liability? Seton Hall Law Rev 2012; 42:643-702. [PMID: 22708139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
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Cooper D. The licensing of German drug patents confiscated during World War I: federal and private efforts to maintain control, promote production, and protect public health. Pharm Hist 2012; 54:3-32. [PMID: 24620480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry Avorn
- Harvard Medical School and the Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, USA
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Sanbar SS. Perceived "War on Doctors" nearing 100 years: part I (1914-2000). J Okla State Med Assoc 2011; 104:357-360. [PMID: 22164576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott H Podolsky
- Center for the History of Medicine, Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, USA
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