Reassessment (after 15 Years) of Non-Patient Adults by the Rorschach Method

The investigation of personality using the Rorschach Method has been historically established, however, its proper use requires continuous study, especially in regard to reliability, validity and normative references. This study's objective was to verify stability indicators of Rorschach (French Approach) through a reassessment (after 15 years) of non-patient adults previously addressed in the normative study by Pasian (1998). A total of 88 adults, aged between 34 and 69 years old, of both sexes, with different socio-economic and educational levels, were reassessed in 2013 in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The responses were independently rated by different judges, with adequate precision. The average results obtained collected in 1998 and 2013 were analyzed to determine if these two sets of data were significantly different from each other (Student's t test, p ≤ .05) and the following variables were compared: Productivity indices, Apprehension Modes/Location, Formal Quality, Determinants, Contents and Banality. The overall stability level in these variables is considerable (mean r = .28, ± SD = 0.21). We discuss the theoretical approach of the Rorschach method regarding structural aspects of personality and developmental issues in personality assessment.

Rorschach measures of cognition relate to everyday and social functioning in schizophrenia

Neurocognitive impairment and negative symptoms contribute to functional disability in people with schizophrenia. Yet, a high level of unexplained variability remains after accounting for the role of these factors. This study examined the role of thought disorder, psychological complexity, and interpersonal representations, as measured by the Rorschach, in explaining functional and social skills capacity in 72 middle-aged and older outpatients with schizophrenia (mean age = 51.2 years). Participants responded to the Rorschach administered with the R-Optimized administration instructions and scored with the Rorschach Performance Assessment System. Relationships with neuropsychological performance and psychopathology were also explored. Psychological complexity, which refers to a person's cognitive capacity for problem solving and organizing his or her surroundings, was correlated with functional capacity (r = .30) and social skills capacity (r = .34). Healthy interpersonal representations were correlated with positive social skills (rs = .24-.28). In multiple regression models, psychological complexity accounted for significant variation in functional (β = .23, p = .02) and social skills capacity (β = .35, p < .01) after controlling for neurocognitive functioning and psychopathology. These data suggest that psychological complexity plays a significant role in the functional limitations seen in schizophrenia, above and beyond the contributions of neurocognitive impairment and negative symptoms. Support was also found for the impact of healthy object relations functioning with social functioning. Clinical implications include novel information for future development of cognitive remediation treatment strategies based on a patient's developmental level of psychological capacity and healthy interpersonal schemas.

Invited commentary: applying psychodynamic developmental assessment to explore mental functioning in adolescents

Recent publications in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence present a variety of topics exploring adolescents' mental functioning in the twenty first century. Conceptually, many of the articles address the intriguing, though rarely explicit, question of developmental continuities and change from adolescence to adulthood. Such investigations, which are particularly prominent in articles that discuss personality dispositions such as impulsivity or lack of empathy and their relationship to emotionally disturbed or maladaptive interpersonal behaviors, examine interactional effects of these dispositions within the personality-context matrix. From a methodological perspective, however, the major tools used for assessing personality dispositions are self-report inventories while performance-based methods, previously defined as projective tests, are not used at all despite the wide range of empirical studies that provide support for their psychometric properties. This commentary suggests that applying a theoretically based, multi-method assessment procedure in empirical research would be most fruitful for any study aimed at exploring mental functioning in adolescents. As an example, I would use the Rorschach Inkblot Method, currently being internationally considered as the most frequently applied personality test for assessing adolescents. Implications for research, practice and policy decision-making are discussed.

Est-ce que c'est vous même dans la glace?--the phenomenology of Rorschach expressive constraint

From the Rorschach Construct Scales, a sixth factor has been separated--termed Emotional and Expressive Constriction--in addition to the five established (Big Five) components of personality. Taking into account recent warnings that statistical techniques have the power to take away from the individual's interaction with the clinician, it is concluded that this Constriction factor in Rorschach-based data sets is a measure of the phenomenology of the Rorschach process, representing not only the client's disposition, but also reflecting the clinician.

Rorschach test findings at the beginning of treatment and 2 years later, with a 30-year follow-up

In this article, I report a case containing 2 Rorschach assessments-the first (R1) 30 years ago at the beginning of a 4-year period of psychotherapy and the second (R2) 2 years later. I also recently contacted the patient to obtain information about his life during the 26 years since termination. This report examines the 2 Rorschach protocols-combining the Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 2003) structural summaries with thematic content analysis-in relation to the patient's history, treatment, and 30-year outcome. I focus on the change between R1 and R2, particularly the shift from an introversive to an ambitent EB and a corresponding shift from 6 Y responses on R1 to 6 m responses on R2. In the clinical interpretation, I considered these shifts in a context of the patient's patterns of managing destabilization and overstimulation.

The Rorschach butterfly effect: it L.L. a mistake

Errors in Rorschach coding and interpretation have contributed substantially to the ink-blot literature, with reported discrepancies on even the simplest scoring tasks. A review of the underlying assumptions uncovered a long-standing location aberration, stemming from Beck's adaptation of Klopfer and perpetuated through Exner. The resulting coding errors (D3 or Dd28, and "o" or "u") in a highly-scrutinized and regularly selected domain of card II potentiates a "butterfly effect" escalation of interpretative malfeasance. It remains unclear whether review of the vast data-base of collected protocol summaries will undo the cumulative putative error, or whether the creation of a fresh approach to Rorschach may be the best way forward for Rorschach in the 21st century.

Psychopathic and Nonpsychopathic Violent Offenders on the Rorschach: Discriminative Features and Comparisons With Schizophrenic Inpatient and University Student Samples

We examined discriminant and convergent validity of theoretically relevant Rorschach Comprehensive System (CS) variables (Exner, 2003) and Meloy and Gacono's (1992) aggression variables in distinguishing between imprisoned violent offenders (VO) who were psychopathic (P-VO) and nonpsychopathic (NP-VO) under psychiatric treatment, schizophrenic inpatients (ISs), and university students (USs). A total of 7 of 12 variables discriminated significantly between P-VO and NP-VO, which suggests more aggressive, cognitive, and interpersonal disturbances among P-VO. We also found significant differences between VOs, ISs, and USs. Logistic regression analyses revealed that AgPast accumulated incrementally in the classification of P-VO versus NP-VO, and AgC accumulated incrementally in the classification of VO versus IS when entered after CS variables. The findings support the view that psychopathy is a distinctive form of antisocial personality disorder (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) organized at a more severe pathological level.

A Psychometric Evaluation of the Rorschach Comprehensive System's Perceptual Thinking Index

In this study, we investigated evidence for reliability and validity of the Perceptual Thinking Index (PTI; Exner, 2000a, 2000b) among an adult inpatient population. We conducted reliability and validity analyses on 107 patients who met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text revision; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) criteria for a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder (SSD) or mood disorder with no psychotic features (MD). Results provided support for interrater reliability as well as internal consistency of the PTI. Furthermore, the PTI was an effective index in differentiating SSD patients from patients diagnosed with an MD. Finally, the PTI demonstrated adequate diagnostic statistics that can be useful in the classification of patients diagnosed with SSD and MD. We discuss methodological issues, implications for assessment practice, and directions for future research.

Temporal stability in the Rorschach method: a meta-analytic review

The temporal stabilities of the Rorschach method scoring systems were investigated. A comprehensive literature search was conducted to find all test-retest studies, both regular and from control samples in therapy evaluation studies. Meta-analyses were conducted for samples, individual entries, and variables in 36 samples. Separate analyses were made for 10 samples using the Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 1993). The temporal stability was high, especially those obtained from regression model predictions. The CS consistently shows higher stability than other systems, whereas increasing retest intervals leads to decreasing stability. Shortcomings of the available studies are highlighted and discussed, and recommendations are given for design and methodology.

A critique of Lilienfeld et al.'s (2000) "The scientific status of projective techniques"

Lilienfeld, Wood, and Garb (2000) published a largely negative critique of the validity and reliability of projective methods, concentrating on the Comprehensive System for the Rorschach (Exner, 1993), 3 systems for coding the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Murray, 1943) cards, and human figure drawings. This article is an effort to document and correct what I perceive as errors of omission and commission in the Lilienfeld et al. article. When projective measures are viewed in the light of these corrections, the evidence for the validity and clinical usefulness of the Rorschach and TAT methods is more robust than Lilienfeld et al. represented.

Empirical support for interrater reliability of Rorschach Comprehensive System coding

Although a great deal of data has been published in the past 20 years supporting the interrater reliability of the Rorschach, recently commentators have raised anew concerns over the interrater reliability of this well-known and frequently used measure. An analysis of the literature reveals that these concerns are based on a selective review of the literature. The current study reports interrater reliability statistics for 70 interpretive Rorschach variables (n = 84), breaking down intraclass correlations statistics by base rate. Results confirm the strong empirical evidence of the interrater reliability of this measure when scored by a well-trained and diverse group of researchers and clinicians. Reliability is especially strong and consistent for the high base-rate variables from which clinicians often base their interpretations. These data further suggest that large samples are needed for stable reliability estimates of low base-rate variables and that estimates of the reliability of low base-rate variables are subject to error.

Convergent validity of Rorschach and TAT scales of object relations

The Rorschach Mutuality of Autonomy Scale (MOA) and the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale (SCORS) have been shown to be reliable and valid measures of interpersonal functioning. Utilizing a sample of 57 outpatients with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Axis II diagnosis, this study extends the findings of previous research demonstrating the reliability and convergent validity of each measure. Analyses focused on the convergent validity between the Rorschach MOA Scale and 8 SCORS variables (complexity, affect, emotional investment in relationships, emotional investment in values and morals, understanding of social causality, management of impulses/aggression, self-esteem, identity/coherence of self) ratings of Thematic Apperception Test narratives. The conceptual nature and clinical utility of these findings are discussed in relation to psychological assessment.

Incremental validity of the Ego Impairment Index: it's fine when it's there

The results published by W. Perry (2001) demonstrate that with a different criterion more incremental validity can be achieved with the Ego Impairment Index than R. M. Dawes (1999) found using the criterion available to him. Attempting to find statistical rationale for various Rorschach characteristics is, indeed, desirable, especially as a basis for the statistical use of the test. The degree of predictability indicated by most of these statistics, however, still presents a sizable gap between well established validity and much practice, particularly in legal settings. Further, both W. Perry (2001) and D. J. Viglione and M. J. Hilsonroth (2001) raise the issue of evaluating incremental validity in a context where there is some degree of multicolinearity and nesting. The logical equivalence of a nested with a non-nested analysis is established algebraically, and it is noted that the standard concerns about multicolinearity involve the estimations of the coefficients of predictive models--not the degree of predictability per se.

Incremental validity of the Ego Impairment Index: a re-examination of Dawes (1999)

This article examined the incremental validity of the Ego Impairment Index (EII), a Rorschach measure of cognition, perception, and reasoning. R. M. Dawes (1999) borrowed 2 previously published data sets to assess the incremental validity of the EII. Dawes determined that in order for the EII to be considered a valid measure, the overall EII score should "outperform" 2 of the variables that compose the index. Using this approach, Dawes reported that the EII had "deficient" (p = .059) incremental validity. In this study, the incremental validity of the EII was re-examined using 1 of the data sets used by R. M. Dawes (1999). Applying the same strategy as Dawes, the author tested the incremental validity of the EII in predicting positive symptoms of schizophrenia, a more appropriate and clinically relevant criterion measure of impairment. The EII significantly predicted positive symptoms (p < .005) even after the 2 EII variables selected by Dawes and the measure of social competence were 1st entered into the equation. The results suggest that the EII adds meaningful information in the assessment of thought disturbance.

Weighing evidence for the Rorschach's validity: a response to Wood et al. (1999)

Wood, Nezworski, Stejskal, Garven, and West (1999) challenged Ganellen's (1996) characterization of the revised Rorschach Depression Index (DEPI; Exner, 1991) as a promising psychometric marker of depression that deserves serious attention by researchers and clinicians. To the contrary, however, a careful examination of existing studies indicates that no compelling empirical evidence exists indicating that Ganellen's conclusions should be modified at the present time, although no firm conclusions about the DEPI can be reached until further evidence accumulates. Furthermore, although Wood et al. (1999) suggested that evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the Rorschach in general is weak, ample evidence exists demonstrating that the Rorschach can be scored reliably (Meyer, 1997), that Rorschach variables in general have respectable levels of criterion-related validity (Bornstein, 1996; Hiller, Rosenthal, Bornstein, Berry, & Brunnel-Neuleib, 1999), and that the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) and Rorschach have comparable levels of criterion-related validity, with the MMPI outperforming the Rorschach in certain respects and the Rorschach outperforming the MMPI in others (Bornstein, 1999; Hiller et al, 1999).

Constructivism and the projective assessment of meaning in Rorschach administration

Constructivist perspectives on the Rorschach are outlined. I discuss ways in which constructivism complements and adds to existing Rorschach methodologies. It is suggested hat the constructivist emphasis on personally and socially constructed meanings is very consistent with many of the ways the Rorschach has been used and resonates with recent emphases on the Rorschach as a representational task. Furthermore, constructivist perspectives on Rorschach also provide an opportunity to supplement Exner's (1993, 1995) efforts to standardize and norm the Rorschach in a way that maintains the instrument's historic and admirable attention to relational elements of assessment and psychotherapy. I present a variety of meaning-based techniques for conducting Rorschach assessment, incorporating both the constructivist and social constructionist perspective.

Advancing scientific discourse in the controversy surrounding the Comprehensive System for the Rorschach: a rejoinder to Meyer (2000)

A recent commentary by Meyer (2000) in the Journal of Personality Assessment alleged that Rorschach critic Wood and his colleagues had intentionally published information that they knew to be in error. To substantiate this contention, Meyer's commentary published information that was part of the peer review process at another journal. In this rejoinder, we present factual information that shows we have consistently acted in good faith. This rejoinder suggests that the scientific debate regarding the Comprehensive System for the Rorschach is unlikely to be advanced by speculating about the intentions of Rorschach critics, or by publishing information from the peer review process that is usually kept confidential.

Rorschach administration: a comparison of the effect of two instructions

The effect of administering the Rorschach Inkblot Method under 2 instructional sets was compared across 19 outcome measures. Sixty healthy participants randomly received either the short instruction "What might this be?" originally developed by Rorschach (1942) and recommended in the Comprehensive System (Exner, 1993), or a long instruction (Killingmo, 1980), which for many years has been the standard instruction in Norway. The short instruction produced significantly more questions to the examiner about the test and more brief protocols R < 14) than did the long one. However, for the traditional summary Rorschach scores no between-group differences were observed for the 2 instructional sets. It is suggested that if future studies of larger clinical and more representative samples demonstrate corresponding results, a more elaborate standard instruction might be preferable.

Interpersonal dependency and personality pathology: variations in Rorschach Oral Dependency scores across Axis II diagnoses

Although several investigations have examined the relationship of Rorschach Oral Dependency (ROD; Masling, Rabie, & Blondheim, 1967) scores to Axis I diagnosis, there has been very little research assessing variations in ROD scores across Axis II personality disorders (PDs). In this study, ROD scores were compared in 5 PD groups (borderline PD inpatients, borderline PD outpatients, avoidant-dependent PD outpatients, narcissistic PD outpatients, and antisocial PD outpatients), and 2 non-PD comparison groups (psychotic disorder inpatients and college students). Borderline PD inpatients had significantly higher ROD scores than borderline PD outpatients, antisocial PD outpatients, and college students; no other between-group differences were found. We discuss implications of these results for research on dependency and Axis II psychopathology and offer suggestions for future studies.

A relational interpretation of the Rorschach color determinants

This article presents a contemporary relational interpretation of the Rorschach that is consistent with the empirical features of the Comprehensive System. The specific focus is on color determinants and the FC:CF+C ratio. The approach follows that of Schachtel ( 1959), who argued that how one perceives others reveals the quality of relatedness between oneself and others. Schachtel identified a developmental sequence of relatedness (perceptual-relatedness modes) and linked these levels of perceiving and relating to the Rorschach color determinants. I suggest that this developmental sequence, elaborated in a contemporary context, defines the expected or normative course of relatedness, whether across a lifetime, a particular relationship, or an interpersonal encounter. I further propose that relationships emerge and develop through organized trial-and-error activity, in the sense of Piaget's (1952) trying out (assimilating) and simultaneously modifying (accommodating) one's understanding within a relationship. Relatedness levels and the developmental transitions between them are described in terms of the underlying assimilation and accommodation processes. Within this general approach, the FC:CF+C ratio is defined as reflecting styles of relating to one's interpersonal environment, with each relational style based on normative or on variant relational development. Four fundamental relational styles-healthy, egocentric, veneered egocentric, and defensive-are described and coordinated with the Comprehensive System FC:CF+C potential findings.

Rorschach patterns of response in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder versus combat and normal controls

To further evaluate Rorschach indicators of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), test protocols of 16 combat veterans so diagnosed were compared with those of 9 combat controls and 12 noncombat subjects. Results replicated Rorschach abnormalities previously associated with this disorder, including signs of low stress tolerance, poor affect modulation, perceptual distortion, and interpersonal disengagement. However, only two indicators, EB (Erlebnistypus) and CC (combat-related content), differentiated PTSD subjects from controls (P < .05). Examination of negative findings revealed that all three groups similarly deviated from Exner nonpatient norms (Exner, 1993: The Rorschach, Vol 1. New York: John Wiley and Sons) on many Rorschach variables. Possible explanations for these findings are considered, and the need for control subjects in Rorschach investigation is underscored.

Psychophysiologic responses to the Rorschach in PTSD patients, noncombat and combat controls

While psychophysiologic studies of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have investigated the effects of trauma-related stimuli on arousal, none have explored the development of intrusive imagery and affect states in the absence of such specific cues. The present study compares autonomic arousal during PTSD-related Rorschach responses in PTSD veterans vs. combat controls and noncombat controls. It was found that Rorshach responses containing traumatic content were found only in the PTSD group, and that these responses showed elevations in skin conductance (SC) and heart rate (HR). Our data also suggest that PTSD patients are more easily hyperaroused, especially under conditions of experienced stress and helplessness. Finally, combat control subjects exhibited lower baseline SC and HR than their counterparts, as well as decelerated HR during trauma- and stress-related Rorschach responses, suggesting a physiologic resilience in this group.

A replication of Rorschach and MMPI-2 convergent validity

We replicated prior research on Rorschach and MMPI-2 convergent validity by testing 8 hypotheses in a new sample of patients. We also extended prior research by developing criteria to include more patients and by applying the same procedures to 2 self-report tests: the MMPI-2 and the MCMI-II. Results supported our hypotheses and paralleled the prior findings. Furthermore, 3 different tests for methodological artifacts could not account for the results. Thus, the convergence of Rorschach and MMPI-2 constructs seems to be partially a function of how patients interact with the tests. When patients approach each test with a similar style, conceptually aligned constructs tend to correlate. Although this result is less robust, when patients approach each test in an opposing manner, conceptually aligned constructs tend to be negatively correlated. When test interaction styles are ignored, MMPI-2 and Rorschach constructs tend to be uncorrelated, unless a sample just happens to possess a correlation between Rorschach and MMPI-2 stylistic variables. Remaining ambiguities and suggestions for further advances are discussed.

Further exploration of the Rorschach Aggressive Content (AgC) variable

Based on the recommendations of Baity and Hilsenroth (1999), this study further investigated the reliability and validity of the Rorschach Aggressive Content (AgC) variable developed by Gacono and Meloy (1994). Eighty-five aggressive objects identified by Gacono and Meloy, 19 potentially aggressive objects and 22 neutral (nonaggressive) objects were rated for aggressiveness based on the definition of AgC. Two hundred seventy-six participants rated objects on the Object Rating Scale (0-6), where a score of 0 indicates that an object does not fit the definition of AgC. In addition, objects rated a 4 (moderately aggressive) or higher were then classified into 5 qualitative groupings (weapons, animal/part of animal, environmental danger, fictional creature, and other). Analysis of the results indicates that the AgC list can be replicated and that objects rated as at least moderately aggressive (4) can be reliably classified into distinct categories. One-month test-retest reliability (r = .99) suggests that objects can be scored consistently using the definition of AgC and provides support for the utility of the AgC variable. Based on the results of this study, recommendations for the addition of the AgC variable to the list of content categories of Exner's (1993) Comprehensive System are presented and discussed along with scoring examples.

Making Rorschach interpretation as good as it can be

This article delineates six guidelines for enhancing the quality and utility of interpretations derived from the Rorschach inkblot method. These include (a) using all of the available structural, thematic, and behavioral data in arriving at interpretations; (b) focusing interpretive statements primarily on personality processes and drawing clinical conclusions and recommendations secondarily on the basis of identified personality processes; (c) addressing interpretations to both personality strengths and personality weaknesses to attend equally to adaptive capacities and maladaptive tendencies; (d) formulating and conveying interpretations at appropriate levels of certainty to distinguish clearly between probable fact and possible conjecture; (e) pursuing and expressing both nomothetic and idiographic implications of interpretations to the fullest possible extent, recognizing that personality is best described by considering both how people resemble and how they differ from each other; and (f) grounding the implications of interpretations in each respondent's cultural context to take adequate account of the mediation of cultural relativism between personality characteristics and their adaptive consequences.

The Rorschach test in clinical diagnosis: a critical review, with a backward look at Garfield (1947)

The present article comments on a classic study by Garfield (1947) then reviews research on the Rorschach and psychiatric diagnoses. Despite a few positive findings, the Rorschach has demonstrated little validity as a diagnostic tool. Deviant verbalizations and bad form on the Rorschach, and indices based on these variables, are related to Schizophrenia and perhaps to Bipolar Disorder and Schizotypal Personality Disorder. Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder also seem to give an above-average number of deviant verbalizations. Otherwise the Rorschach has not shown a well-demonstrated relationship to these disorders or to Major Depressive Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders other than PTSD, Dissociative Identity Disorder, Dependent, Narcissistic, or Antisocial Personality Disorders, Conduct Disorder, or psychopathy.

Using the Rorschach properly in practice and research

Proper use of the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) in practice and research requires (a) well-founded expectations concerning what the RIM should be expected to do, and (b) appropriate methods for examining its validity in achieving the purposes for which it is intended. The RIM is a personality-assessment instrument, and its validity should be judged from its substantial correlations with observed behaviors that are conceptually linked to personality processes. Knowledge about personality functioning gleaned from Rorschach data may contribute to diagnostic formulations, but associations between Rorschach indices and psychometrically shaky DSM diagnostic categories have little bearing on the utility of the instrument for achieving its intended purposes. Adequate conceptual formulation of this kind is as necessary as solid empirical verification in the development and use of psychological assessment instruments.

Interobserver agreement, intraobserver reliability, and the Rorschach Comprehensive System

Interrater agreement and reliability for the Rorschach have recently come under increasing scrutiny. This is the second report examining methods of Comprehensive System reliability using principles derived from observational methodology and applied behavioral analysis. This study examined a previous nonpatient sample of 20 protocols (N = 412 responses) and also examined a new clinical sample of 20 protocols (N = 374 responses) diagnosed with Research Diagnostic Criteria. Reliability was analyzed at multiple levels of Comprehensive System data, including response-level individual codes and coding decisions and ratios, percentages, and derivations from the Structural Summary. With a number of exceptions, most Comprehensive System codes, coding decisions, and summary scores yield acceptable, and in many instances excellent, levels of reliability. Limitations arising from the nature of Rorschach data and Comprehensive System coding criteria are discussed.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test: a case of overstatement?

In the 1940s, inflated claims were often made regarding the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Over half a century later, overstatements regarding the test are still common. The present article identifies problems with the Rorschach regarding norms, cultural sensitivity, interrater reliability, test-retest reliability, validity, factor structure, and accessibility of supporting studies. Contrary to overstated claims made on behalf of the Rorschach, the test continues to be a highly problematic instrument from a psychometric standpoint.

Call for a moratorium on the use of the Rorschach Inkblot Test in clinical and forensic settings

A call is issued for a moratorium on the use of the Rorschach Inkblot Test in clinical and forensic (but not research) settings. The moratorium should last until we have determined which Rorschach scores are valid and which ones are invalid. Unfortunately, for most Rorschach scores, results from meta-analyses have been uninformative. Also, incremental validity has not been studied for most Rorschach scores. Furthermore, positive findings for Rorschach scores have rarely been independently replicated. Finally, selective reporting of results has been a problem: Some investigators report significant results but not nonsignificant results. The magnitude of this problem has not been determined. Unless a moratorium is adopted, clinicians will continue to interpret invalid scores along with valid scores.

What the Rorschach can do for you: incremental validity in clinical applications

Psychological assessment instruments vary in how much structure they provide and the extent to which their meaning and purpose are apparent. The Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) is a relatively unstructured instrument whereas the MMPI-2 is a relatively structured instrument: People respond to these two instruments at different levels of conscious awareness concerning the possible significance of their responses. Because of its relatively unstructured nature, the RIM is less susceptible than the MMPI-2 to impression management. This complementarity makes it possible for Rorschach findings to enrich clinical assessments, especially when efforts to fake good result in MMPI-2 protocols that provide little reliable information. There is solid conceptual basis in psychology for employing multi-method assessment, and clinical applications in which Rorschach data contribute to fuller or more accurate formulations than would otherwise be possible attest the incremental validity that can derive from including relatively unstructured measures in a test battery.

Behavioral science foundations of the Rorschach test: research and clinical applications

Never without its critics, the Rorschach Test continues to be widely used in clinical settings. The test continues to be criticized vigorously. Rorschach critics appear to fall into two broad groups: those leveling valid methodological concerns about the test s behavioral science foundations and method critics who appear to deny the validity of the test on strictly a priori or theoretical considerations. Many critics do not appear to be acquainted with the extensive Rorschach research literature. The current paper provides an overview of several domains of applied and laboratory Rorschach behavioral science, including statistical power analysis, interobserver agreement and interrater reliability, Rorschach assessment of thought disorder, and emerging research linking Rorschach variables with diagnostic criteria from the DSM-IV, as a means of educating both adherents and detractors alike concerning the test s scientific track record and applicability to clinical assessment.

Methodological issues in evaluating Rorschach validity: a comment on Burns and Viglione (1996), Weiner (1996), and Ganellen (1996)

The old controversy regarding the Rorschach Inkblot Test has recently revived. The present article suggests that the debate will be most productive if careful attention is paid to methodological issues. Three recent examples illustrate how incorrect conclusions regarding Rorschach validity may occur if methodological issues are not evaluated carefully. The present article examines (a) Burns and Viglione s (1996) conclusion that the Rorschach Human Experience Variable (HEV) is a predictor of interpersonal relatedness among adults; (b) Weiner s (1996) conclusion that the D score and Morbid Responses (MOR) are valid measures of experienced distress in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD); and (c) Ganellen s (1996a, 1996b) conclusion that the Rorschach Depression Index (DEPI) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) are comparable in their power to identify diagnoses of depression.

Detection of minimization of psychopathology on the Rorschach in cleric and noncleric alleged sex offenders

The assessment of response-bias is critical in forensic psychological evaluations of alleged sex offenders because sex offenders frequently minimize psychopathology or personal limitations. This study tested predictions based on prior research that minimization on the Rorschach would be reflected by higher P, D, A, Lambda, and PER, and lower R, Blends, and Zf. We divided a sample of cleric and noncleric alleged sex offenders according to (a) whether they showed minimization on the MMPI, and (b) whether they admitted to their charges. We then compared these groups on the purported Rorschach validity indices. Our results do not support the use of any of these Rorschach scores in the assessment of minimization. We recommend that in forensic psychological evaluations, the Rorschach should not be used to assess defensiveness and is best used in combination with other psychometric instruments more sensitive to response-bias.

Perceptual integrations and the "normal" Rorschach percept

The "normal" Rorschach percept is characterized by congruency (correspondence between blot and reality) and good form (an appropriate synthesis among elements comprising the blot). Both congruency and good form arise from perceptual integrations and can be objectified in terms of providing false information (incongruency) and maximizing identifying information about the blot (good form), thus providing a logical foundation for Rorschach interpretation.

Rorschach interpretation with high-ability adolescent females: psychopathology or creative thinking?

Highly intelligent and creative persons have long posed interpretation difficulties for users of the Rorschach Inkblot Test. This study examined Exner's (1993) Schizophrenia, Depression, and Coping Deficit indices as adjustment measures in a sample of 43 female adolescents enrolled in an early college entrance program and a comparison group of 19 girls enrolled in public high school gifted programs. Contrary to conventional interpretation, higher scores on the Rorschach Schizophrenia Index among the accelerants were correlated with healthy emotional adjustment on both the California Psychological Inventory and the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). Further analyses offered support for the hypothesis that among accelerants, elevated scores on the Rorschach constellations did not indicate psychopathology, but rather their creative thinking style.

Rorschach revised DEPI and CDI with inpatient Major Depressives and Borderline Personality Disorder with major depression: validity issues

This study focused on the clinical field validity of the Rorschach comprehensive system revised DEPI and CDI indices. Forty admission protocols from two inpatient adult DSM-III-R diagnosed samples, one with Major Depressive Disorder, uncomplicated, and one with Major Depressive Disorder and concurrent Borderline Personality Disorder, were compared. Hypotheses were (a) both groups would be identified by the revised DEPI and (b) if the Depressed Borderline group was not identified by the DEPI, it would be identified by the CDI. Both hypotheses were negated, raising questions regarding the validity of the indices for use in clinical diagnosis, treatment, and clinical research.

Retest reliability of scores on objective and projective measures of dependency: relationship to life events and interest interval

The retest reliabilities of widely used objective and projective measures of dependency were assessed in a mixed-sex sample of undergraduates (54 women and 34 men). Subjects completed Hirschfeld and colleagues' (1977) Interpersonal Dependency Inventory (IDI) and Masling, Rabie, and Blondheim's (1967) Rorschach Oral Dependency (ROD) scale on two occasions separated by 16, 28, or 60 weeks. The IDI and ROD scale showed good retest reliability over 16 weeks in both men and women. However, the ROD scale did not show adequate retest reliability over longer periods in subjects of either sex. IDI scores showed excellent long-term retest reliability in women, but poor long-term retest reliability in men. Subjects' self-reports and impact ratings of life events experienced during the intertest period were unrelated to changes in subjects' IDI and ROD scale scores from Time 1 to Time 2, regardless of the intertest interval used.

An empirical study of malingering schizophrenia on the Rorschach

We investigated whether it is possible to fake schizophrenia on the Rorschach test. We also developed and attempted to validate variables (modified responses) that might distinguish malingerers from true schizophrenics. Forty nonschizophrenic, nonpatient subjects, randomly assigned to either a control or malingering condition, and 20 schizophrenic subjects were administered the Rorschach. Dependent variables included indices associated with schizophrenia and modified responses. As expected, some malingering subjects did successfully fake schizophrenia. Modified responses did help to distinguish groups but were not completely successful. Post hoc analyses of differences were also presented. We concluded (a) that some malingerers, given some information about schizophrenia, may successfully fake schizophrenia and (b) that the modified responses show promise in assisting detection of malingering.

Color vision deficits and Rorschach performance in aged persons

Forty-two community residing older adults (M age = 69.28) (32 color normal, 10 color deficient) were administered the Rorschach and measures of both verbal and nonverbal intelligence in order to explore the effect of color vision deficiencies on affective responsivity. Among the sample of older persons screened for both visual and auditory acuity, when controls for intelligence and numbers of responses were made, greater affective constriction was found in the protocols of color vision deficient persons, relative to color normal individuals. These data suggest that Rorschach indicators of affective constriction may be biased in the case of individuals who have experienced color vision decrements. Consequently, first screening for color vision decrements when assessing older persons' personality dynamics may be desirable.