Direct determination of the resonance properties of metallic conical nanoantennas

We present a simple method that is able to predict the resonant frequencies of a metallic conical nanoantenna. The calculation is based on an integral relation that takes into account the dependence of the effective refractive index of the plasmonic mode on the cone radius. Numerical simulations retrieving the near field properties of nanocones with different lengths are also performed for comparison. The fine agreement between the two approaches demonstrates the validity of our method.

Molding of Plasmonic Resonances in Metallic Nanostructures: Dependence of the Non-Linear Electric Permittivity on System Size and Temperature

In this paper, we review the principal theoretical models through which the dielectric function of metals can be described. Starting from the Drude assumptions for intraband transitions, we show how this model can be improved by including interband absorption and temperature effect in the damping coefficients. Electronic scattering processes are described and included in the dielectric function, showing their role in determining plasmon lifetime at resonance. Relationships among permittivity, electric conductivity and refractive index are examined. Finally, a temperature dependent permittivity model is presented and is employed to predict temperature and non-linear field intensity dependence on commonly used plasmonic geometries, such as nanospheres.

Cold field emission dominated photoconductivity in ordered three-dimensional assemblies of octapod-shaped CdSe/CdS nanocrystals

Semiconductor nanocrystals, especially their ordered assemblies, are promising materials for various applications. In this paper, we investigate the photoconductive behavior of sub-micron size, ordered three-dimensional (3D) assemblies of octapod-shaped CdSe/CdS nanocrystals that are contacted by overlay electron-beam lithography. The regular structure of the assemblies leads to photocurrent-voltage curves that can be described by the cold field electron emission model. Mapping of the photoconductivity versus excitation wavelength and bias voltage allows the extraction of the band gap and identification of the photoactive region in the voltage and spectral domain. These results have important implications for the understanding of photoconductive transport in similar systems.

3D hollow nanostructures as building blocks for multifunctional plasmonics

We present an advanced and robust technology to realize 3D hollow plasmonic nanostructures which are tunable in size, shape, and layout. The presented architectures offer new and unconventional properties such as the realization of 3D plasmonic hollow nanocavities with high electric field confinement and enhancement, finely structured extinction profiles, and broad band optical absorption. The 3D nature of the devices can overcome intrinsic difficulties related to conventional architectures in a wide range of multidisciplinary applications.

Broad spectral photocurrent enhancement in Au-decorated CdSe nanowires

Metal-semiconductor hybrid nanostructures promise improved photoconductive performance due to plasmonic properties of the metal portions and intrinsic electric fields at the metal-semiconductor interface that possibly enhance charge separation. Here we report gold decorated CdSe nanowires as a novel functional material and investigate the influence of gold decoration on the lateral facets on the photoconductive properties. Gold decorated nanowires show typically an at least ten-fold higher photocurrent as compared to their bare counterparts. Interestingly, the photocurrent enhancement is wavelength independent, although the plasmon resonance related to the gold particles appears in the absorption spectra. Our experiments show that light scattering and Schottky fields associated with the metal-semiconductor interface are at the origin of the photocurrent enhancement.

Optical nanoantennas for multiband surface-enhanced infrared and Raman spectroscopy

In this article we show that linear nanoantennas can be used as shared substrates for surface-enhanced Raman and infrared spectroscopy (SERS and SEIRS, respectively). This is done by engineering the plasmonic properties of the nanoantennas, so to make them resonant in both the visible (transversal resonance) and the infrared (longitudinal resonance), and by rotating the excitation field polarization to selectively take advantage of each resonance and achieve SERS and SEIRS on the same nanoantennas. As a proof of concept, we have fabricated gold nanoantennas by electron beam lithography on calcium difluoride (1-2 μm long, 60 nm wide, 60 nm high) that exhibit a transverse plasmonic resonance in the visible (640 nm) and a particularly strong longitudinal dipolar resonance in the infrared (tunable in the 1280-3100 cm(-1) energy range as a function of the length). SERS and SEIRS detection of methylene blue molecules adsorbed on the nanoantenna's surface is accomplished, with signal enhancement factors of 5×10(2) for SERS (electromagnetic enhancement) and up to 10(5) for SEIRS. Notably, we find that the field enhancement provided by the transverse resonance is sufficient to achieve SERS from single nanoantennas. Furthermore, we show that by properly tuning the nanoantenna length the signals of a multitude of vibrational modes can be enhanced with SEIRS. This simple concept of plasmonic nanosensor is highly suitable for integration on lab-on-a-chip schemes for label-free chemical and biomolecular identification with optimized performances.

Interplay between electric and magnetic effect in adiabatic polaritonic systems

We report on the possibility of realizing adiabatic compression of polaritonic wave on a metallic conical nano-structure through an oscillating electric potential (quasi dynamic regime). By comparing this result with an electromagnetic wave excitation, we were able to relate the classical lighting-rod effect to adiabatic compression. Furthermore, we show that while the magnetic contribution plays a marginal role in the formation of adiabatic compression, it provides a blue shift in the spectral region. In particular, magnetic permeability can be used as a free parameter for tuning the polaritonic resonances. The peculiar form of adiabatic compression is instead dictated by both the source and the metal permittivity. The analysis is performed by starting from a simple electrostatic system to end with the complete electromagnetic one through intermediate situations such as the quasi-electrostatic and quasi-dynamic regimes. Each configuration is defined by a particular set of equations which allows to clearly determine the individual role played by the electric and magnetic contribution in the generation of adiabatic compression. We notice that these findings can be applied for the realization of a THz nano-metric generator.

Superhydrophobic surfaces allow probing of exosome self organization using X-ray scattering

Drops of exosome dispersions from healthy epithelial colon cell line and colorectal cancer cells were dried on a superhydrophobic PMMA substrate. The residues were studied by small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering using both a synchrotron radiation micrometric beam and a high-flux table-top X-ray source. Structural differences between healthy and cancerous cells were detected in the lamellar lattices of the exosome macro-aggregates.

Reflection-mode TERS on Insulin Amyloid Fibrils with Top-Visual AFM Probes

Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy provides chemical information while raster scanning samples with topographical detail. The coupling of atomic force microscopy and Raman spectroscopy in top illumination optical setup is a powerful configuration to resolve nanometer structures while collecting reflection mode backscattered signal. Here, we theoretically calculate the field enhancement generated by TER spectroscopy with top illumination geometry and we apply the technique to the characterization of insulin amyloid fibrils. We experimentally confirm that this technique is able to enhance the Raman signal of the polypeptide chain by a factor of 10⁵, thus revealing details down to few molecules resolution.

Terahertz Dipole Nanoantenna Arrays: Resonance Characteristics

Resonant dipole nanoantennas promise to considerably improve the capabilities of terahertz spectroscopy, offering the possibility of increasing its sensitivity through local field enhancement, while in principle allowing unprecedented spatial resolutions, well below the diffraction limit. Here, we investigate the resonance properties of ordered arrays of terahertz dipole nanoantennas, both experimentally and through numerical simulations. We demonstrate the tunability of this type of structures, in a range (∼1-2 THz) that is particularly interesting and accessible by means of standard zinc telluride sources. We additionally study the near-field resonance properties of the arrays, finding that the resonance shift observed between near-field and far-field spectra is predominantly ascribable to ohmic damping.

Nanostructured superhydrophobic substrates trigger the development of 3D neuronal networks

The generation of 3D networks of primary neurons is a big challenge in neuroscience. Here, a novel method is presented for a 3D neuronal culture on superhydrophobic (SH) substrates. How nano-patterned SH devices stimulate neurons to build 3D networks is investigated. Scanning electron microscopy and confocal imaging show that soon after plating neurites adhere to the nanopatterned pillar sidewalls and they are subsequently pulled between pillars in a suspended position. These neurons display an enhanced survival rate compared to standard cultures and develop mature networks with physiological excitability. These findings underline the importance of using nanostructured SH surfaces for directing 3D neuronal growth, as well as for the design of biomaterials for neuronal regeneration.

Fast, active droplet interaction: coalescence and reactive mixing controlled by electrowetting on a superhydrophobic surface

A novel electrowetting-on-dielectrics (EWOD) device in open planar geometry allows probing of droplet mixing on a superhydrophobic substrate under quasi contact-free conditions. We demonstrate a droplet-based microreactor with integrated convective-flow mixing for the reactive-mixing of CaCl(2)/Na(2)CO(3) solutions. The device provides unique conditions for scattering, spectroscopy and imaging probes requiring an unobstructed droplet-access.

Human NK cells selective targeting of colon cancer-initiating cells: a role for natural cytotoxicity receptors and MHC class I molecules

Tumor cell populations have been recently proposed to be composed of two compartments: tumor-initiating cells characterized by a slow and asymmetrical growth, and the "differentiated" cancer cells with a fast and symmetrical growth. Cancer stem cells or cancer-initiating cells (CICs) play a crucial role in tumor recurrence. The resistance of CICs to drugs and irradiation often allows them to survive traditional therapy. NK cells are potent cytotoxic lymphocytes that can recognize tumor cells. In this study, we have analyzed the NK cell recognition of tumor target cells derived from the two cancer cell compartments of colon adenocarcinoma lesions. Our data demonstrate that freshly purified allogeneic NK cells can recognize and kill colorectal carcinoma-derived CICs whereas the non-CIC counterpart of the tumors (differentiated tumor cells), either autologous or allogeneic, is less susceptible to NK cells. This difference in the NK cell susceptibility correlates with higher expression on CICs of ligands for NKp30 and NKp44 in the natural cytotoxicity receptor (NCR) group of activating NK receptors. In contrast, CICs express lower levels of MHC class I, known to inhibit NK recognition, on their surface than do the "differentiated" tumor cells. These data have been validated by confocal microscopy where NCR ligands and MHC class I molecule membrane distribution have been analyzed. Moreover, NK cell receptor blockade in cytotoxicity assays demonstrates that NCRs play a major role in the recognition of CIC targets. This study strengthens the idea that biology-based therapy harnessing NK cells could be an attractive opportunity in solid tumors.

Plasmon based biosensor for distinguishing different peptides mutation states

Periodic and reproducible gold nanocuboids with various matrix dimensions and with different inter-particle gaps were fabricated by means of top-down technique. Rhodamine 6G was used as a probe molecule to optimize the design and the fabrication of the cuboid nanostructures. The electric field distribution for the nanocuboids with varying matrix dimensions/inter-particle gap was also investigated. These SERS devices were employed as biosensors through the investigation of both myoglobin and wild/mutated peptides. The results demonstrate the probing and the screening of wild/mutated BRCA1 peptides, thus opening a path for the fabrication of simple and cheap SERS device capable of early detection of several diseases.

Mapping the local dielectric response at the nanoscale by means of plasmonic force spectroscopy

At the present, the local optical properties of nanostructured materials are difficult to be measured by available instrumentation. We investigated the capability of plasmonic force spectroscopy of measuring the optical response at the nanoscale. The proposed technique is based on force measurements performed by combining Atomic Force Microscopy, or optical tweezers, and adiabatic compression of surface plasmon polaritons. We show that the optical forces, caused by the plasmonic field, depend on the local response of the substrates and, in principle, allow probing both the real and the imaginary part of the local permittivity with a spatial resolution of few nanometers.

Microfluidic devices modulate tumor cell line susceptibility to NK cell recognition

This study aims to adoptively reduce the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecule surface expression of cancer cells by exposure to microfluid shear stress and a monoclonal antibody. A microfluidic system is developed and tumor cells are injected at different flow rates. The bottom surface of the microfluidic system is biofunctionalized with antibodies (W6/32) specific for the MHC-I molecules with a simple method based on microfluidic protocols. The antibodies promote binding between the bottom surface and the MHC-I molecules on the tumor cell membrane. The cells are injected at an optimized flow rate, then roll on the bottom surface and are subjected to shear stress. The stress is localized and enhanced on the part of the membrane where MHC-I proteins are expressed, since they stick to the antibodies of the system. The localized stress allows a stripping effect and consequent reduction of the MHC-I expression. It is shown that it is possible to specifically treat and recover eukaryotic cells without damaging the biological samples. MHC-I molecule expression on treated and control cell surfaces is measured on tumor and healthy cells. After the cell rolling treatment a clear reduction of MHC-I levels on the tumor cell membrane is observed, whereas no changes are observed on healthy cells (monocytes). The MHC-I reduction is investigated and the possibility that the developed system could induce a loss of these molecules from the tumor cell surface is addressed. The percentage of living tumor cells (viability) that remain after the treatment is measured. The changes induced by the microfluidic system are analyzed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and confocal microscopy. Cytotoxicity tests show a relevant increased susceptibility of natural killer (NK) cells on microchip-treated tumor cells.

Infrared optical properties of nanoantenna dimers with photochemically narrowed gaps in the 5 nm regime

In this paper, we report on the manipulation of the near-field coupling in individual gold nanoantenna dimers resonant in the infrared (IR) spectral range. Photochemical metal deposition onto lithographically fabricated nanoantennas is used to decrease the gap between the antenna arms down to below 4 nm, as confirmed by finite-difference time-domain simulations. The increased plasmonic coupling in the gap region leads to a shift of the surface plasmon resonances to lower energies as well as to the appearance of hybridized plasmonic modes. All of the occurring electron oscillation modes can be explained by the plasmon hybridization model. Besides the bonding combination of the fundamental resonances of individual antennas, also the antibonding combination is observed in the IR transmittance at normal incidence. Its appearance is due to both structural defects and the small gaps between the antennas. The detailed analysis of individual IR antennas presented here allows a profound understanding of the spectral features occurring during the photochemical manipulation process and therefore paves the way to a full optical process monitoring of sub-nanometer scale gaps, which may serve as model systems for experimental studies of quantum mechanical effects in plasmonics.

Nanoparticle-based delivery of small interfering RNA: challenges for cancer therapy

During recent decades there have been remarkable advances and profound changes in cancer therapy. Many therapeutic strategies learned at the bench, including monoclonal antibodies and small molecule inhibitors, have been used at the bedside, leading to important successes. One of the most important advances in biology has been the discovery that small interfering RNA (siRNA) is able to regulate the expression of genes, by a phenomenon known as RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi is one of the most rapidly growing fields of research in biology and therapeutics. Much research effort has gone into the application of this new discovery in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer. However, even though these molecules may have potential and strong utility, some limitations make their clinical application difficult, including delivery problems, side effects due to off-target actions, disturbance of physiological functions of the cellular machinery involved in gene silencing, and induction of the innate immune response. Many researchers have attempted to overcome these limitations and to improve the safety of potential RNAi-based therapeutics. Nanoparticles, which are nanostructured entities with tunable size, shape, and surface, as well as biological behavior, provide an ideal opportunity to modify current treatment regimens in a substantial way. These nanoparticles could be designed to surmount one or more of the barriers encountered by siRNA. Nanoparticle drug formulations afford the chance to improve drug bioavailability, exploiting superior tissue permeability, payload protection, and the “stealth” features of these entities. The main aims of this review are: to explain the siRNA mechanism with regard to potential applications in siRNA-based cancer therapy; to discuss the possible usefulness of nanoparticle-based delivery of certain molecules for overcoming present therapeutic limitations; to review the ongoing relevant clinical research with its pitfalls and promises; and to evaluate critically future perspectives and challenges in siRNA-based cancer therapy.

High-performance and site-directed in utero electroporation by a triple-electrode probe

In utero electroporation is a powerful tool to transfect and manipulate neural-precursor cells of the rodent parietal cortex and their progeny in vivo. Although this technique can potentially target numerous brain areas, reliability of transfection in some brain regions is low or physical access is limited. Here, we present a new in utero-electroporation configuration based on the use of three electrodes, the relative position and polarities of which can be adjusted. The technique allows easy access and exceedingly reliable monolateral or bilateral transfection at brain locations that could only be sporadically targeted before. By improvement in the efficiency of the electrical field distribution, demonstrated here by a mathematical simulation, the multi-electrode configuration also extends the developmental timeframe for reliable in utero electroporation, allowing for the first time specific transfection of Purkinje cells in the rat cerebellum.

Superhydrophobic surfaces as smart platforms for the analysis of diluted biological solutions

The aim of this paper is to expound on the rational design, fabrication and development of superhydrophobic surfaces (SHSs) for the manipulation and analysis of diluted biological solutions. SHSs typically feature a periodic array or pattern of micropillars; here, those pillars were modified to incorporate on the head, at the smallest scales, silver nanoparticles aggregates. These metal nanoclusters guarantee superior optical properties and especially SERS (surface enhanced Raman scattering) effects, whereby a molecule, adsorbed on the surface, would reveal an increased spectroscopy signal. On account of their two scale-hybrid nature, these systems are capable of multiple functions which are (i) to concentrate a solution, (ii) to vehicle the analytes of interest to the active areas of the substrate and, therefore, (iii) to measure the analytes with exceptional sensitivity and very low detection limits. Forasmuch, combining different technologies, these devices would augment the performance of conventional SERS substrates and would offer the possibility of revealing a single molecule. In this work, similar SHSs were used to detect Rhodamine molecules in the fairly low atto molar range. The major application of this novel family of devices would be the early detection of tumors or other important pathologies, with incredible advances in medicine.

Charge transport in nanoscale "all-inorganic" networks of semiconductor nanorods linked by metal domains

Charge transport across metal-semiconductor interfaces at the nanoscale is a crucial issue in nanoelectronics. Chains of semiconductor nanorods linked by Au particles represent an ideal model system in this respect, because the metal-semiconductor interface is an intrinsic feature of the nanosystem and does not manifest solely as the contact to the macroscopic external electrodes. Here we investigate charge transport mechanisms in all-inorganic hybrid metal-semiconductor networks fabricated via self-assembly in solution, in which CdSe nanorods were linked to each other by Au nanoparticles. Thermal annealing of our devices changed the morphology of the networks and resulted in the removal of small Au domains that were present on the lateral nanorod facets, and in ripening of the Au nanoparticles in the nanorod junctions with more homogeneous metal-semiconductor interfaces. In such thermally annealed devices the voltage dependence of the current at room temperature can be well described by a Schottky barrier lowering at a metal semiconductor contact under reverse bias, if the spherical shape of the gold nanoparticles is considered. In this case the natural logarithm of the current does not follow the square-root dependence of the voltage as in the bulk, but that of V(2/3). From our fitting with this model we extract the effective permittivity that agrees well with theoretical predictions for the permittivity near the surface of CdSe nanorods. Furthermore, the annealing improved the network conductance at cryogenic temperatures, which could be related to the reduction of the number of trap states.

A facile in situ microfluidic method for creating multivalent surfaces: toward functional glycomics

An in situ method of modifying the chemistry and topology of microfluidic surfaces in order to mimic the cellular environment is described. The binding of functionalised microbeads to microfluidic channels allows the surface-to-volume ratio of the system, and thus the number of biomolecules available for reaction, to be vastly increased, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of biochemical analyses. The sensitivity and specificity of the technique were first investigated via the study of carbohydrate-protein interactions. Beads featuring hydrazide moieties were adhered to the channel surface, after which carbohydrates (galactose and mannose) were bound to the beads in situ and reacted with fluorescently labelled proteins. Results showed a six-fold increase in fluorescent signal compared to the same process performed on a glass surface without the presence of beads, thereby demonstrating the increase in valence afforded by the method. In a subsequent study, beads, modified with galactose moieties via the in situ functionalisation technique, were used to perform studies of colon tumour cells from a cell sample. Here, the carcinoma cells exhibited superior adhesion than the normal cells due to an increased expression of active galactose receptors, thereby demonstrating the success of the biofunctionalisation method for investigating cellular mechanisms.

Silver self aggregation in a nanodevice for enhanced Raman spectroscopy: experiments vs. simplified modeling via molecular dynamics

We present a study, via experiments and exploratory molecular dynamics simulations, of self aggregation in cylindrical nanostructures obtained experimentally by combining high resolution electron beam lithography with electroless silver deposition. This process is key to the fabrication of a nanolens device, where a strong surface enhancement can be exploited for Raman spectroscopy. In order to investigate the process, we introduce a simple theoretical model and compare the results of simulations with the fabricated silver nanostructures during the growth phase. Our simulations qualitatively agree with the experiments and allow a general characterization of the process at length scales smaller than those easily accessible by microscopy. We identify a geometrical parameter, the aspect ratio of the cylinder, that relates two different types of growth with different characteristics and, possibly, different Raman enhancements.